Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology: Difference between revisions

Jump to navigation Jump to search
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
No edit summary
 
(2 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 4: Line 4:
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AL}}{{MGS}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{AL}}{{MGS}}
==Overview==
==Overview==
Small cell lung cancer is the most aggressive form of [[lung cancer]] and has the highest association with [[smoking]] of all [[Lung cancer|lung cancers]]. Small cell lung cancer usually deve in the [[bronchi]] and expands through the [[bronchial]] [[mucosa]]. Small cell lung cancer often [[metastasize]]s rapidly to other parts of the body, including the [[brain]], [[liver]], and [[bone]].  A [[mutation]] in the [[p53]] [[gene]] is reported in 75%-100% of the cases. Other [[molecular]] abnormalities that contribute to the development of small cell lung cancer have been described.
Small cell lung cancer is the most aggressive form of [[lung cancer]] and has the highest association with [[smoking]] of all [[Lung cancer|lung cancers]]. Small cell lung cancer usually develops in the [[bronchi]] and expands through the [[bronchial]] [[mucosa]]. Small cell lung cancer often [[metastasize]]s rapidly to other parts of the [[Human body|body]], including the [[brain]], [[liver]], and [[bone]].  A [[mutation]] in the [[p53]] [[gene]] is reported in 75%-100% of the cases. Other [[molecular]] abnormalities that contribute to the development of small cell lung cancer have been described.


==Pathogenesis==
==Pathogenesis==


===Genetics===
===Genetics===
* A [[mutation]] in the [[p53]] gene is reported in 75%-100% of the cases of small cell lung cancer.  Other [[molecular]] abnormalities that contribute to the development of small cell lung cancer have been described, such as:<ref>{{Cite journal
* A [[mutation]] in the [[p53]] gene is reported in 75 - 100% of the cases of small cell lung cancer.   
*Other [[molecular]] abnormalities that contribute to the development of small cell lung cancer are:<ref>{{Cite journal
  | author = [[Grace K. Dy]] & [[Alex A. Adjei]]
  | author = [[Grace K. Dy]] & [[Alex A. Adjei]]
  | title = Novel targets for lung cancer therapy: part I
  | title = Novel targets for lung cancer therapy: part I
Line 66: Line 67:


===Smoking===
===Smoking===
* The association between [[smoking]] and [[lung cancer]] is well established. In fact, studies from the early 1950's demonstrated an elevated risk of [[lung cancer]] with [[smoking]].<ref>{{Cite journal
* The association between [[smoking]] and [[lung cancer]] is well established.  
*Studies from the early 1950's demonstrated an elevated risk of [[lung cancer]] with [[smoking]].<ref>{{Cite journal
  | author = [[R. DOLL]] & [[A. B. HILL]]
  | author = [[R. DOLL]] & [[A. B. HILL]]
  | title = Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report
  | title = Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report
Line 86: Line 88:
  | doi = 10.1186/1471-2407-12-385
  | doi = 10.1186/1471-2407-12-385
  | pmid = 22943444
  | pmid = 22943444
}}</ref>  In particular, small cell lung cancer is highly associated with [[smoking]], even more than the other types of [[lung cancer]].<ref name="NCCN">[http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines_nojava.asp NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Small Cell Lung Cancer, version 2.2014] </ref>
}}</ref>   
*In particular, small cell lung cancer is highly associated with [[smoking]], even more than the other types of [[lung cancer]].<ref name="NCCN">[http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines_nojava.asp NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Small Cell Lung Cancer, version 2.2014] </ref>


* There are more than 60 [[carcinogens]] in a [[cigarette]],<ref name="Hecht">{{cite journal | last =Hecht | first =S | title =Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer | journal =Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume =3 | issue =10 | pages =733–744 | publisher =Nature Publishing Group | date =Oct 2003 | url =http://www.nature.com/nrc/journal/v3/n10/abs/nrc1190_fs.html;jsessionid=A78B217DFCAD36DD965F2DBA685CF121 | doi =10.1038/nrc1190 |pmid =14570033 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> including [[radioisotopes]] from the [[radon]] decay sequence, [[nitrosamine]], and [[benzopyrene]]. These [[carcinogens]] cause [[oxidative stress]] through [[reactive oxygen species]] and promote [[point mutations]] in different [[genes]], especially in [[TP53]] and [[KRAS]]. These events culminate in the development of [[Neoplastic|neoplastic cells]].<ref name="PleasanceStephens2009">{{cite journal|last1=Pleasance|first1=Erin D.|last2=Stephens|first2=Philip J.|last3=O’Meara|first3=Sarah|last4=McBride|first4=David J.|last5=Meynert|first5=Alison|last6=Jones|first6=David|last7=Lin|first7=Meng-Lay|last8=Beare|first8=David|last9=Lau|first9=King Wai|last10=Greenman|first10=Chris|last11=Varela|first11=Ignacio|last12=Nik-Zainal|first12=Serena|last13=Davies|first13=Helen R.|last14=Ordoñez|first14=Gonzalo R.|last15=Mudie|first15=Laura J.|last16=Latimer|first16=Calli|last17=Edkins|first17=Sarah|last18=Stebbings|first18=Lucy|last19=Chen|first19=Lina|last20=Jia|first20=Mingming|last21=Leroy|first21=Catherine|last22=Marshall|first22=John|last23=Menzies|first23=Andrew|last24=Butler|first24=Adam|last25=Teague|first25=Jon W.|last26=Mangion|first26=Jonathon|last27=Sun|first27=Yongming A.|last28=McLaughlin|first28=Stephen F.|last29=Peckham|first29=Heather E.|last30=Tsung|first30=Eric F.|last31=Costa|first31=Gina L.|last32=Lee|first32=Clarence C.|last33=Minna|first33=John D.|last34=Gazdar|first34=Adi|last35=Birney|first35=Ewan|last36=Rhodes|first36=Michael D.|last37=McKernan|first37=Kevin J.|last38=Stratton|first38=Michael R.|last39=Futreal|first39=P. Andrew|last40=Campbell|first40=Peter J.|title=A small-cell lung cancer genome with complex signatures of tobacco exposure|journal=Nature|volume=463|issue=7278|year=2009|pages=184–190|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/nature08629}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
* There are more than 60 [[carcinogens]] in a [[cigarette]],<ref name="Hecht">{{cite journal | last =Hecht | first =S | title =Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer | journal =Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume =3 | issue =10 | pages =733–744 | publisher =Nature Publishing Group | date =Oct 2003 | url =http://www.nature.com/nrc/journal/v3/n10/abs/nrc1190_fs.html;jsessionid=A78B217DFCAD36DD965F2DBA685CF121 | doi =10.1038/nrc1190 |pmid =14570033 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> including [[radioisotopes]] from the [[radon]] decay sequence, [[nitrosamine]], and [[benzopyrene]].
*These [[carcinogens]] cause [[oxidative stress]] through the formation of [[reactive oxygen species]] and promote [[point mutations]] in different [[genes]], especially in [[TP53]] and [[KRAS]].  
*These events culminate in the development of [[Neoplastic|neoplastic cells]].<ref name="PleasanceStephens2009">{{cite journal|last1=Pleasance|first1=Erin D.|last2=Stephens|first2=Philip J.|last3=O’Meara|first3=Sarah|last4=McBride|first4=David J.|last5=Meynert|first5=Alison|last6=Jones|first6=David|last7=Lin|first7=Meng-Lay|last8=Beare|first8=David|last9=Lau|first9=King Wai|last10=Greenman|first10=Chris|last11=Varela|first11=Ignacio|last12=Nik-Zainal|first12=Serena|last13=Davies|first13=Helen R.|last14=Ordoñez|first14=Gonzalo R.|last15=Mudie|first15=Laura J.|last16=Latimer|first16=Calli|last17=Edkins|first17=Sarah|last18=Stebbings|first18=Lucy|last19=Chen|first19=Lina|last20=Jia|first20=Mingming|last21=Leroy|first21=Catherine|last22=Marshall|first22=John|last23=Menzies|first23=Andrew|last24=Butler|first24=Adam|last25=Teague|first25=Jon W.|last26=Mangion|first26=Jonathon|last27=Sun|first27=Yongming A.|last28=McLaughlin|first28=Stephen F.|last29=Peckham|first29=Heather E.|last30=Tsung|first30=Eric F.|last31=Costa|first31=Gina L.|last32=Lee|first32=Clarence C.|last33=Minna|first33=John D.|last34=Gazdar|first34=Adi|last35=Birney|first35=Ewan|last36=Rhodes|first36=Michael D.|last37=McKernan|first37=Kevin J.|last38=Stratton|first38=Michael R.|last39=Futreal|first39=P. Andrew|last40=Campbell|first40=Peter J.|title=A small-cell lung cancer genome with complex signatures of tobacco exposure|journal=Nature|volume=463|issue=7278|year=2009|pages=184–190|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/nature08629}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
  | author = [[David M. DeMarini]]
  | author = [[David M. DeMarini]]
  | title = Genotoxicity of tobacco smoke and tobacco smoke condensate: a review
  | title = Genotoxicity of tobacco smoke and tobacco smoke condensate: a review
Line 99: Line 104:
  | doi = 10.1016/j.mrrev.2004.02.001
  | doi = 10.1016/j.mrrev.2004.02.001
  | pmid = 15572290
  | pmid = 15572290
}}</ref> In addition, [[nicotine]] appears to depress the [[immune response]] to [[malignant]] growth in exposed [[tissues]].
}}</ref>  
*In addition, [[nicotine]] appears to depress the [[immune response]] to [[malignant]] growth in exposed [[tissues]].


===Radon Exposure===
===Radon Exposure===
Line 135: Line 141:
  | pmid = 17043686
  | pmid = 17043686
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
* [[Radon]] damages the [[Epithelium|epithelial lining]] of the [[lung]] by either interacting directly with the cellular [[DNA]] and causing [[chromosomal]] damage and gene [[mutations]], or indirectly through the effect of [[free radicals]]. [[Radon]] gas emits [[alpha particles]] that react with the [[Water (molecule)|water molecule]]s, creating several [[reactive oxygen species]] that react with other [[molecules]] and cause biologic damage to the [[lung]] cells.<ref name="HarleyChittaporn2008">{{cite journal|last1=Harley|first1=N. H.|last2=Chittaporn|first2=P.|last3=Heikkinen|first3=M. S. A.|last4=Meyers|first4=O. A.|last5=Robbins|first5=E. S.|title=Radon carcinogenesis: risk data and cellular hits|journal=Radiation Protection Dosimetry|volume=130|issue=1|year=2008|pages=107–109|issn=0144-8420|doi=10.1093/rpd/ncn123}}</ref><ref name="Al-ZoughoolKrewski2009">{{cite journal|last1=Al-Zoughool|first1=Mustafa|last2=Krewski|first2=Daniel|title=Health effects of radon: A review of the literature|journal=International Journal of Radiation Biology|volume=85|issue=1|year=2009|pages=57–69|issn=0955-3002|doi=10.1080/09553000802635054}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
* [[Radon]] damages the [[Epithelium|epithelial lining]] of the [[lung]] by either interacting directly with the cellular [[DNA]] and causing [[chromosomal]] damage and gene [[mutations]], or indirectly through the effect of [[free radicals]].  
*[[Radon]] gas emits [[alpha particles]] that react with the [[Water (molecule)|water molecule]]s, creating several [[reactive oxygen species]] that react with other [[molecules]] and cause biologic damage to the [[lung]] [[Cell (biology)|cells]].<ref name="HarleyChittaporn2008">{{cite journal|last1=Harley|first1=N. H.|last2=Chittaporn|first2=P.|last3=Heikkinen|first3=M. S. A.|last4=Meyers|first4=O. A.|last5=Robbins|first5=E. S.|title=Radon carcinogenesis: risk data and cellular hits|journal=Radiation Protection Dosimetry|volume=130|issue=1|year=2008|pages=107–109|issn=0144-8420|doi=10.1093/rpd/ncn123}}</ref><ref name="Al-ZoughoolKrewski2009">{{cite journal|last1=Al-Zoughool|first1=Mustafa|last2=Krewski|first2=Daniel|title=Health effects of radon: A review of the literature|journal=International Journal of Radiation Biology|volume=85|issue=1|year=2009|pages=57–69|issn=0955-3002|doi=10.1080/09553000802635054}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
  | author = [[Michael C. R. Alavanja]]
  | author = [[Michael C. R. Alavanja]]
  | title = Biologic damage resulting from exposure to tobacco smoke and from radon: implication for preventive interventions
  | title = Biologic damage resulting from exposure to tobacco smoke and from radon: implication for preventive interventions
Line 149: Line 156:


===Paraneoplastic Syndrome===
===Paraneoplastic Syndrome===
* Small cell lung cancer is one of the most common [[tumors]] associated with a [[paraneoplastic syndrome]].  The most common [[endocrine]] condition associated with small cell lung cancer is [[syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone]] ([[SIADH]]), where there is an excessive [[secretion]] of [[antidiuretic hormone]] ([[ADH]]) which leads to [[hyponatremia]].  
* Small cell lung cancer is one of the most common [[tumors]] associated with a [[paraneoplastic syndrome]].   
*The most common [[endocrine]] condition associated with small cell lung cancer is [[syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone]] ([[SIADH]]), where there is an excessive [[secretion]] of [[antidiuretic hormone]] ([[ADH]]) leading to [[hyponatremia]].
* Other conditions that are related to small cell lung cancer are:
* Other conditions that are related to small cell lung cancer are:
** Production of [[atrial natriuretic peptide]] ([[ANP]]) leading to [[hyponatremia]], [[natriuresis]] and [[hypotension]]
** Production of [[atrial natriuretic peptide]] ([[ANP]]) leading to [[hyponatremia]], [[natriuresis]] and [[hypotension]]
** Ectopic [[ACTH]] production, which causes [[Cushing syndrome]]
**[[Ectopia|Ectopic]] [[ACTH]] production, which causes [[Cushing syndrome]]
** [[Lambert-Eaton syndrome]] due to the production of [[antibodies]] directed against the [[antigens]] of the [[neuromuscular junction]]s
**[[Lambert-Eaton syndrome]] due to the production of [[antibodies]] directed against the [[antigens]] of the [[neuromuscular junction]]s


==Gross Pathology==
==Gross Pathology==
Small cell lung cancer exhibit the following findings on gross examination:<ref name="Zakowski2003">{{cite journal|last1=Zakowski|first1=Maureen F.|title=Pathology of small cell carcinoma of the lung|journal=Seminars in Oncology|volume=30|issue=1|year=2003|pages=3–8|issn=00937754|doi=10.1053/sonc.2003.50015}}</ref>
Small cell lung cancer exhibits the following findings on [[gross examination]]:<ref name="Zakowski2003">{{cite journal|last1=Zakowski|first1=Maureen F.|title=Pathology of small cell carcinoma of the lung|journal=Seminars in Oncology|volume=30|issue=1|year=2003|pages=3–8|issn=00937754|doi=10.1053/sonc.2003.50015}}</ref>
* [[Necrosis]]
* [[Necrosis]]
* Central location
* Central location
Line 167: Line 175:
==Microscopic Pathology==
==Microscopic Pathology==


In small cell lung cancer, the tumor cells are small and round, but they can sometimes be ovoid or spindle shaped.  They have a scant [[cytoplasm]] with a high mitotic count and a hyperchromatic [[nuclei]].  Nearly all small cell lung cancer are immunoreactive for [[keratin]], [[thyroid transcription factor 1]], and epithelial membrane antigen.  Neuroendocrine and neural differentiation result in the expression of molecules like dopa decarboxylase, [[calcitonin]], neuron-specific [[enolase]], [[chromogranin A]], [[CD56]] (also known as nucleosomal histone kinase 1 or neural-cell adhesion molecule), gastrin-releasing peptide, and [[insulin-like growth factor 1]].  One or more markers of neuroendocrine differentiation can be found in approximately 75% of small cell lung cancer.<ref name="NCI">National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.  Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/small-cell-lung/healthprofessional.</ref>
* In small cell lung cancer, the [[Tumor cell|tumor cells]] are small and round, but they can sometimes be ovoid or spindle shaped.   
* The [[Cell (biology)|cells]] have scant [[cytoplasm]] with a high [[Mitosis|mitotic]] count and hyperchromatic [[nuclei]].   
* Nearly all small cell lung cancers are immunoreactive for [[keratin]], [[thyroid transcription factor 1]], and epithelial membrane antigen.   
* Neuroendocrine and neural differentiation result in the expression of molecules like dopa decarboxylase, [[calcitonin]], neuron-specific [[enolase]], [[chromogranin A]], [[CD56]] (also known as nucleosomal histone kinase 1 or neural-cell adhesion molecule), gastrin-releasing peptide, and [[insulin-like growth factor 1]].   
* One or more markers of neuroendocrine differentiation can be found in approximately 75% of small cell lung cancers.<ref name="NCI">National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.  Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/small-cell-lung/healthprofessional.</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"

Latest revision as of 21:55, 3 September 2019

Small Cell Carcinoma of the Lung Microchapters

Home

Patient Information

Overview

Historical Perspective

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Small Cell Carcinoma of the Lung from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Radiation Therapy

Surgery

Prevention

Future or Investigational Therapies

Case Studies

Case #1

Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology On the Web

Most recent articles

Most cited articles

Review articles

CME Programs

Powerpoint slides

Images

American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology

All Images
X-rays
Echo & Ultrasound
CT Images
MRI

Ongoing Trials at Clinical Trials.gov

US National Guidelines Clearinghouse

NICE Guidance

FDA on Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology

CDC on Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology

Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology in the news

Blogs on Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology

Directions to Hospitals Treating Small cell carcinoma of the lung

Risk calculators and risk factors for Small cell carcinoma of the lung pathophysiology

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Alejandro Lemor, M.D. [2] Mirdula Sharma, MBBS [3]

Overview

Small cell lung cancer is the most aggressive form of lung cancer and has the highest association with smoking of all lung cancers. Small cell lung cancer usually develops in the bronchi and expands through the bronchial mucosa. Small cell lung cancer often metastasizes rapidly to other parts of the body, including the brain, liver, and bone. A mutation in the p53 gene is reported in 75%-100% of the cases. Other molecular abnormalities that contribute to the development of small cell lung cancer have been described.

Pathogenesis

Genetics

Smoking

Radon Exposure

Paraneoplastic Syndrome

Gross Pathology

Small cell lung cancer exhibits the following findings on gross examination:[17]

Gross fixed tissue opened bronchus at hilum showing tumor close-up. via,PEIR Digital Library [18] Images courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission © PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
Gross natural color photo of left upper lobe neoplasm extending into mediastinal pleura and surrounding portion of aorta node metastasis easily seen small cell carcinoma (unusual spindle cell areas) via,PEIR Digital Library [19] Images courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission © PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology

Microscopic Pathology

  • In small cell lung cancer, the tumor cells are small and round, but they can sometimes be ovoid or spindle shaped.
  • The cells have scant cytoplasm with a high mitotic count and hyperchromatic nuclei.
  • Nearly all small cell lung cancers are immunoreactive for keratin, thyroid transcription factor 1, and epithelial membrane antigen.
  • Neuroendocrine and neural differentiation result in the expression of molecules like dopa decarboxylase, calcitonin, neuron-specific enolase, chromogranin A, CD56 (also known as nucleosomal histone kinase 1 or neural-cell adhesion molecule), gastrin-releasing peptide, and insulin-like growth factor 1.
  • One or more markers of neuroendocrine differentiation can be found in approximately 75% of small cell lung cancers.[20]
Histopathologic image of small cell carcinoma of the lung. CT-guided core needle biopsy. H & E stain.By No machine-readable author provided. KGH assumed (based on copyright claims),via Wikimedia Commons [21]
Micrograph of a small-cell carcinoma of the lung showing cells with nuclear moulding, minimal amount of cytoplasm and stippled chromatin. FNA specimen. Field stain.By No machine-readable author provided. KGH assumed (based on copyright claims), via Wikimedia Commons [22]

References

  1. ↑ Grace K. Dy & Alex A. Adjei (2002). "Novel targets for lung cancer therapy: part I". Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. 20 (12): 2881–2894. PMID 12065566. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ K. Hibi, T. Takahashi, Y. Sekido, R. Ueda, T. Hida, Y. Ariyoshi, H. Takagi & T. Takahashi (1991). "Coexpression of the stem cell factor and the c-kit genes in small-cell lung cancer". Oncogene. 6 (12): 2291–2296. PMID 1722571. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Yuri Pekarsky, Alexey Palamarchuk, Kay Huebner & Carlo M. Croce (2002). "FHIT as tumor suppressor: mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities". Cancer biology & therapy. 1 (3): 232–236. PMID 12432269. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Rong Rong, Weixin Jin, Jennifer Zhang, M. Saeed Sheikh & Ying Huang (2004). "Tumor suppressor RASSF1A is a microtubule-binding protein that stabilizes microtubules and induces G2/M arrest". Oncogene. 23 (50): 8216–8230. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1207901. PMID 15378022. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ R. DOLL & A. B. HILL (1950). "Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report". British medical journal. 2 (4682): 739–748. PMID 14772469. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Peter N. Lee, Barbara A. Forey & Katharine J. Coombs (2012). "Systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence in the 1900s relating smoking to lung cancer". BMC cancer. 12: 385. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-12-385. PMID 22943444.
  7. ↑ NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Small Cell Lung Cancer, version 2.2014
  8. ↑ Hecht, S (Oct 2003). "Tobacco carcinogens, their biomarkers and tobacco-induced cancer". Nature Reviews. Cancer. Nature Publishing Group. 3 (10): 733–744. doi:10.1038/nrc1190. PMID 14570033. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
  9. ↑ Pleasance, Erin D.; Stephens, Philip J.; O’Meara, Sarah; McBride, David J.; Meynert, Alison; Jones, David; Lin, Meng-Lay; Beare, David; Lau, King Wai; Greenman, Chris; Varela, Ignacio; Nik-Zainal, Serena; Davies, Helen R.; Ordoñez, Gonzalo R.; Mudie, Laura J.; Latimer, Calli; Edkins, Sarah; Stebbings, Lucy; Chen, Lina; Jia, Mingming; Leroy, Catherine; Marshall, John; Menzies, Andrew; Butler, Adam; Teague, Jon W.; Mangion, Jonathon; Sun, Yongming A.; McLaughlin, Stephen F.; Peckham, Heather E.; Tsung, Eric F.; Costa, Gina L.; Lee, Clarence C.; Minna, John D.; Gazdar, Adi; Birney, Ewan; Rhodes, Michael D.; McKernan, Kevin J.; Stratton, Michael R.; Futreal, P. Andrew; Campbell, Peter J. (2009). "A small-cell lung cancer genome with complex signatures of tobacco exposure". Nature. 463 (7278): 184–190. doi:10.1038/nature08629. ISSN 0028-0836.
  10. ↑ David M. DeMarini (2004). "Genotoxicity of tobacco smoke and tobacco smoke condensate: a review". Mutation research. 567 (2–3): 447–474. doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2004.02.001. PMID 15572290. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ S. Darby, D. Hill, A. Auvinen, J. M. Barros-Dios, H. Baysson, F. Bochicchio, H. Deo, R. Falk, F. Forastiere, M. Hakama, I. Heid, L. Kreienbrock, M. Kreuzer, F. Lagarde, I. Makelainen, C. Muirhead, W. Oberaigner, G. Pershagen, A. Ruano-Ravina, E. Ruosteenoja, A. Schaffrath Rosario, M. Tirmarche, L. Tomasek, E. Whitley, H.-E. Wichmann & R. Doll (2005). "Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 330 (7485): 223. doi:10.1136/bmj.38308.477650.63. PMID 15613366. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ J. H. Lubin, J. D. Jr Boice, C. Edling, R. W. Hornung, G. R. Howe, E. Kunz, R. A. Kusiak, H. I. Morrison, E. P. Radford & J. M. Samet (1995). "Lung cancer in radon-exposed miners and estimation of risk from indoor exposure". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 87 (11): 817–827. PMID 7791231. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ B. Grosche, M. Kreuzer, M. Kreisheimer, M. Schnelzer & A. Tschense (2006). "Lung cancer risk among German male uranium miners: a cohort study, 1946-1998". British journal of cancer. 95 (9): 1280–1287. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6603403. PMID 17043686. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ Harley, N. H.; Chittaporn, P.; Heikkinen, M. S. A.; Meyers, O. A.; Robbins, E. S. (2008). "Radon carcinogenesis: risk data and cellular hits". Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 130 (1): 107–109. doi:10.1093/rpd/ncn123. ISSN 0144-8420.
  15. ↑ Al-Zoughool, Mustafa; Krewski, Daniel (2009). "Health effects of radon: A review of the literature". International Journal of Radiation Biology. 85 (1): 57–69. doi:10.1080/09553000802635054. ISSN 0955-3002.
  16. ↑ Michael C. R. Alavanja (2002). "Biologic damage resulting from exposure to tobacco smoke and from radon: implication for preventive interventions". Oncogene. 21 (48): 7365–7375. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1205798. PMID 12379879. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ Zakowski, Maureen F. (2003). "Pathology of small cell carcinoma of the lung". Seminars in Oncology. 30 (1): 3–8. doi:10.1053/sonc.2003.50015. ISSN 0093-7754.
  18. ↑ http://peir.path.uab.edu/library/picture.php?/5884/tags/112-carcinoma
  19. ↑ http://peir.path.uab.edu/library/picture.php?/4330
  20. ↑ National Cancer Institute: PDQ® Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/small-cell-lung/healthprofessional.
  21. ↑ href="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html">GFDL</a> or <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/">CC-BY-SA-3.0</a>], <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALung_small_cell_carcinoma_(1)_by_core_needle_biopsy.jpg">
  22. ↑ href="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html">GFDL ="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/">CC-BY-SA-3.0], href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALung_small_cell_carcinoma_(1)_by_core_needle_biopsy.jpg">
  23. ↑ href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carcinoma_microcellulare_oatcell_carcinoma_or_anaplastic_carcinoma_(lung)H%26E_magn_200x.jpg


Template:WikiDoc Sources

Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Small_cell_carcinoma_of_the_lung_pathophysiology&oldid=1581117"