|
|
| (5 intermediate revisions by one other user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{Infobox_Disease |
| | __NOTOC__ |
| Name = {{PAGENAME}} |
| | {{Phimosis}} |
| Image = erect phimosis.jpg|
| |
| Caption = An erect penis with phimosis|
| |
| DiseasesDB = 10019 |
| |
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|N|47||n|40}} |
| |
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|605}} |
| |
| ICDO = |
| |
| OMIM = |
| |
| MedlinePlus = |
| |
| MeshID = D010688 |
| |
| }}
| |
| {{Search infobox}} | |
| {{SCC}} | | {{SCC}} |
| | ==[[Phimosis overview|Overview]]== |
|
| |
|
| ==Overview== | | ==[[Phimosis historical perspective|Historical Perspective]]== |
|
| |
|
| '''Phimosis''' is a medical condition in which the [[foreskin]] of the [[penis]] of a [[male]] cannot be fully retracted. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''phimos'' ({{unicode|φῑμός}}, "muzzle"). The term is confusing because it is used to denote both a physiological stage of development (i.e. not a disease), and a pathological condition (i.e. a condition that causes problems for a person). Elasticity and ambiguity of definition are especially common when referring to infants. Conflicting [[incidence]] reports and widely varying post-neonatal [[circumcision]] rates reflect looseness in the [[diagnosis|diagnostic]] criteria.<ref name="Cantu">Cantu Jr. S. [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic423.htm Phimosis and paraphimosis] emedicine.com. Excellent Emedicine overview.</ref><ref name="Dewan2003">Dewan PA. [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/178_04_170203/dew10610_fm.html Treating phimosis] Med J Austral 178:148-150, 2003. Discussion of physiological and pathological phimosis in childhood and use of diagnosis to justify surgery for parents' sake. Pictures of infant penises with and without phimosis.</ref>
| | ==[[Phimosis classification|Classification]]== |
| Phimosis has become a topic of contention in [[Medical analysis of circumcision|circumcision debates]]<ref name="MJA2003">Multiple authors. [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/178_11_020603/matters_arising_020603-3.html "Matters arising"] Med J Austral 178:587-90, 2003. Letters to the Med J Austral debating the phimosis statistics of Spilsbury and the treatment recommendations of Dewan from both proponents and opponents of circumcision.</ref>
| | ==[[Phimosis pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]== |
|
| |
|
| Phimosis in most but not all infants is physiological rather than pathological, whereas phimosis in older children and adults is more often pathological than physiological. Some have suggested that physiological infantile phimosis be referred to as ''developmental nonretractility of the foreskin'' to more clearly distinguish this normal stage of development from pathological forms of phimosis.<ref name="Shankar1999">Shankar KR, Rickwood AM. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10444134&dopt=Abstract The incidence of phimosis in boys] Brit J Urol Internat 84:101-102, 1999. This study gives a low incidence of pathological phimosis (0.6% of uncircumcised boys by age 15 years) by asserting that [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]] is the only indisputable type of pathological phimosis and anything else should be assumed "physiological". Restrictiveness of definition and circularity of reasoning have been criticized.</ref> Different management is appropriate.
| | ==[[Phimosis causes|Causes]]== |
|
| |
|
| Note that women can suffer from [[clitoris|clitoral]] phimosis.<ref>Ezell C. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000160EE-E53A-1C67-B882809EC588ED9F Anatomy and Sexual Dysfunction] Scientific American.com news item, October 31, 2000</ref>
| | ==[[Phimosis differential diagnosis|Differentiating Phimosis from other Diseases]]== |
|
| |
|
| ==Infantile or congenital phimosis== | | ==[[Phimosis epidemiology and demographics|Epidemiology and Demographics]]== |
| It has been widely recognized by the medical profession for most of the last century that normal male infants have foreskins which are incompletely separated from the [[epithelium]] of the glans penis.<ref name="Cantu" /> They cannot be easily retracted. There have been four types of medical responses and attitudes toward this "normal" infant phimosis:
| |
|
| |
|
| #Some physicians, especially in the first half of the twentieth century, recommended that the foreskin be repeatedly retracted, if necessary with some force, to free it from the glans. It was thought that ensuring separation early could prevent later (pathological) phimosis and urinary problems in older boys, since it permitted washing of the glans and foreskin. Poor hygiene was thought to predispose to pathological phimosis. This approach has not been recommended by physicians for many decades.
| | ==[[Phimosis risk factors|Risk Factors]]== |
| #Some physicians, particularly in the middle of the twentieth century, used avoidance of phimosis as justification for routine neonatal circumcision.<ref name="MJA2003" /> Circumcision does prevent phimosis, although by some incidence statistics, at least 10 to 20 infants must be circumcised to prevent each case of potential phimosis. If one believes even lower phimosis incidence estimates, far more must be circumcised to prevent each case of phimosis. Although there are proponents of this view, it is not considered a compelling argument for routine neonatal circumcision by most pediatricians.<ref name="Lannon1999">Lannon CM, Bailey AGD, Fleischman AR, Kaplan GW, Shoemaker CT, Swanson JT, Coustan D. [http://www.medem.com/medlb/article_detaillb_for_printer.cfm?article_ID=ZZZ6HG9QE8C&sub_cat=1 Circumcision Policy Statement] Pediatrics 103:686-693, 1999. Although not directly focusing on phimosis, this American Academy of Pediatrics report provides a synopsis of circumcision statistics and benefits, with noncommittal final recommendation. "Existing scientific evidence demonstrates potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision; however, these data are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision. In the case of circumcision, in which there are potential benefits and risks, yet the procedure is not essential to the child's current well-being, parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child."</ref>
| |
| #In the last three decades, as the circumcision rate in North America has declined, the most common official recommendations and guidelines from medical societies, as well as infant care books written by experts, have emphasized that it is normal not to be able to retract an infant's foreskin fully and that it need not be done. The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] recommends gentle soap and water cleaning, but specifically recommends against forcible retraction.<ref name="Lannon1999" /> There is now some suspicion that forceful retraction that results in inflammation may actually contribute to pathological phimosis at an older age.<ref name="Cantu" /> Although the rate of surgical treatment of phimosis (usually circumcision) is falling, some [[pediatric urologist]]s have argued that many physicians continue to have trouble distinguishing developmental non-retractility from pathological phimosis, and that phimosis is overdiagnosed.<ref name="Rickwood1989">Rickwood AM, Walker J. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2802472 Is phimosis overdiagnosed in boys and are too many circumcisions performed in consequence?] Ann R Coll Surg Engl 71:275-7, 1989. Authors review English referral statistics and suggest phimosis is overdiagnosed, especially in boys under 5 years, because of confusion with developmentally nonretractile foreskin.</ref><ref name="Spilsbury2003">Spilsbury K, Semmens JB, Wisniewski ZS, Holman CDJ. [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/178_04_170203/spi10278_fm.html Circumcision for phimosis and other medical indications in Western Australian boys] Med J Austral 178:155-158, 2003. Recent Australian statistics with good discussion of ascertainment problems arising from surgical statistics. PMID 10444134</ref><ref name="vanHowe1998">Van Howe RS. [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/102/4/e43 Cost-effective treatment of phimosis] Pediatrics 102: 4 October 1998, p. e43. A pediatrician and anti-circumcision activist reviews estimated costs and complications of 3 phimosis treatments (topical steroids, praeputioplasty, and surgical circumcision) and concludes that topical steroids should be tried first, and praeputioplasty has advantages over surgical circumcision. This article also provides a good discussion of the difficulty distinguishing pathological from physiological phimosis in young children and alleges inflation of phimosis statistics for purposes of securing insurance coverage for post-neonatal circumcision in the United States.</ref>
| |
| #Phimosis is sometimes used as a justification for circumcision,<ref name="Dewan2003" /><ref name="vanHowe1998" /> so that it will be covered by a national health system or insurance plan. The definition may be stretched by a physician for an older child; particularly where (as in North America), post-neonatal circumcision is usually outpatient surgery by a [[pediatric urologist]], more expensive than the neonatal procedure.<ref name="vanHowe1998" />
| |
|
| |
|
| Not all infantile phimosis is simply physiological. Though uncommon, phimosis can occasionally lead to urinary obstruction or pain. Causes of pathological phimosis in infancy are varied. Some cases may arise from [[balanitis]] (inflammation of the glans penis), perhaps due in turn to inappropriate efforts to separate and retract an infant foreskin. Other cases of non-retractile foreskin may be caused by preputial stenosis or narrowness that prevents retraction, by fusion of the foreskin with the glans penis in children, or by [[frenulum breve]], which prevents retraction. In some cases a cause may not be clear, or it may be difficult to distinguish physiological phimosis from pathological if an infant appears to be in pain with urination or has obvious ballooning of the foreskin with urination or apparent discomfort. However, even ballooning does not always indicate urinary obstruction.<ref name="Babu2004"> Babu R, Harrison SK, Hutton KAR. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2004.04935.x/abs/ Ballooning of the foreskin and physiological phimosis: is there any objective evidence of obstructed voiding?] BJU Internat 2004; 94:384-7</ref>
| | ==[[Phimosis natural history, complications and prognosis|Natural History, Complications and Prognosis]]== |
|
| |
|
| There are several management approaches to infant phimosis.<ref name="Dewan2003" /> Most cases of simple physiological phimosis need no "management" but will disappear with time or simple stretching of the foreskin. Various topical steroid ointments have been effective at hastening separation without surgery.<ref name="Monsour1999">Monsour MA, Rabinovitch HH, Dean GE. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=99385638 Medical management of phimosis in children: our experience with topical steroids] J Urol 162:1162-4, 1999. Good description of topical steroid use as alternative to surgery.
| | ==Diagnosis== |
| </ref><ref name="vanHowe1998" /> Several surgical techniques have been devised, which range from simple slitting of a segment of the foreskin to removal of it ([[circumcision]]).
| | [[Phimosis history and symptoms|History and Symptoms]] | [[Phimosis physical examination|Physical Examination]] |[[Phimosis laboratory findings|Laboratory Findings]] | [[Phimosis ultrasound|Ultrasound]] | [[Phimosis other imaging findings|Other Imaging Findings]] |[[Phimosis other diagnostic studies|Other Diagnostic Studies]] |
|
| |
|
| ==Acquired phimosis== | | ==Treatment== |
| Phimosis in older children and adults can vary in severity, with some men able to retract their foreskin partially ("relative phimosis"), and some completely unable to retract their foreskin even in the flaccid state ("full phimosis"). | | [[Phimosis medical therapy|Medical Therapy]] | [[Phimosis surgery|Surgery]] | [[Phimosis primary prevention|Primary Prevention]] | [[Phimosis secondary prevention|Secondary Prevention]] | [[Phimosis cost-effectiveness of therapy|Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy]] | [[Phimosis future or investigational therapies|Future or Investigational Therapies]] |
|
| |
|
| Because of the "elasticity" of the diagnostic criteria, there has been considerable variation in the reported prevalence of pathological phimosis. An incidence rate of 1% to 2% of the uncircumcised adult male population is often cited, though some studies of older children or adolescents have reported higher rates.<ref name="Cantu" /> Relative phimosis is more common, with estimates of its frequency at approximately 8% of uncircumcised men.<ref name="PhimosisStatistics">Stuart R. [http://www.male-initiation.net/statistics.html#start Encyclopedia of Phimosis Statistics] male-initiation.net</ref>
| | == Case Studies == |
| | | [[Phimosis case study one|Case #1]] |
| When phimosis develops in an uncircumcised adult who was previously able to retract his foreskin, it is nearly always due to a pathological cause, and is far more likely to cause problems for the man.
| | ==Related Chapters== |
| | | * [[Paraphimosis]] |
| An important cause of acquired, pathological phimosis is chronic [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]] (BXO), a skin condition of unknown origin that causes a whitish ring of indurated tissue (a [[cicatrix]]) to form near the tip of the prepuce. This inelastic tissue prevents retraction. Some evidence suggests that BXO may be the same disease as [[lichen sclerosus et atrophicus]] of the vulva in females.<ref>Laymon, CW, Freeman, C. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/BXO/laymon1/ Relationship of Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans to Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus] Arch Dermat Syph 49:57-9, 1944</ref> Infectious, inflammatory, and hormonal factors have all been implicated or proposed as contributing factors. Circumcision is usually recommended though alternatives have been advocated.
| |
| | |
| Phimosis may occur after other types of chronic inflammation (e.g., [[balanoposthitis]]), repeated catheterization, or forceful foreskin retraction.<ref name="Cantu" />
| |
| | |
| Images of phimosis.[http://147.46.43.65/~circum/hwimage/phimosis2.jpg][http://www.vghtpe.gov.tw/~peds/lecture/phimosis/42.jpg]
| |
| | |
| ==Potential complications of acquired phimosis== | |
| [[Image:Phimotic Ring 070726.jpg|thumb|left||200px|Phimotic ring]] | |
| Chronic complications of acquired (pathological phimosis) can include discomfort or pain during urination or sexual intercourse. The urinary stream can be impeded, resulting in dribbling and wetness after urination. Harmful [[urinary obstruction]] is possible but uncommon. Pain may occur when a partially retractable foreskin retracts during [[Sexual intercourse|intercourse]] and [[choke]]s the glans penis. A totally non-retractable foreskin is rarely [[Pain and nociception|painful]]. There is some evidence that phimosis may be a risk factor for penile cancer.<ref>Willcourt RJ. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#110919 Discussion of Rickwood et al (2000)] BMJ.com e-letters, 30 June 2005.</ref>
| |
| | |
| The worst acute complication is [[paraphimosis]] (Image. [http://www.midori-clinic.or.jp/phimosis/palaphi.jpg]). In this acute condition, the glans is swollen and painful, and the foreskin is immobilized by the swelling in a partially retracted position. The proximal penis is flaccid. Paraphimosis is considered an emergency.
| |
| | |
| ==Treatment of phimosis==
| |
| Phimosis in infancy is nearly always physiological, and needs to be treated only if it is causing obvious problems such as urinary discomfort or obstruction. In older children and adults phimosis should be distinguished from [[frenulum breve]], which more often requires surgery, though the two conditions can occur together.
| |
| | |
| If phimosis in older children or adults is not causing acute and severe problems, nonsurgical measures may be effective. Choice of treatment is often determined by whether the patient (or doctor) views circumcision as an option of last resort to be avoided or as the preferred course. Some adults with nonretractile foreskins have no difficulties and see no need for correction.
| |
| | |
| * [[Circumcision]] is the traditional surgical solution for pathological phimosis, and is effective. Serious complications from circumcision are very rare, but minor complication rates (e.g., having to perform a second procedure or meatotomy to revise the first or to re-open the urethra) have been reported in about 0.2-0.6% in most reported series,<ref name="Lannon1999" /> though others quote higher rates.<ref name="vanHowe1998" />
| |
| | |
| * [[Preputioplasty]], in which a limited dorsal slit with transverse closure is made along the constricting band of skin<ref name="Cuckow1994"> Cuckow, PR, Rix, G, Mouriquand, PDE. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/cuckow/ Preputial Plasty: A Good Alternative to Circumcision] J Pediatr Surg 29(4):561-3, 1994 </ref><ref name="Saxena2000">Saxena AK, Schaarschmidt K, Reich A, Willital GH. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/saxena1/ Non-retractile foreskin: a single center 13-year experience] Int Surg 85(2):180-3, 2000</ref> can be an effective alternative to full circumcision.<ref name="vanHowe1998" /> It has the advantage of only extremely limited pain and a very short time of healing relative to the rather more traumatic circumcision, together with no cosmetic effects.
| |
| | |
| High rates of success have been reported with several nonsurgical measures:
| |
| | |
| * Application of topical [[steroid]] cream for 4-6 weeks to the narrow part of the foreskin is relatively simple and less expensive than surgical treatments.<ref name="vanHowe1998" /> It has replaced circumcision as the preferred treatment method for some physicians in the U.K. [[National Health Service]].<ref name="Berdue2001">Berdeu D, Sauze L, Ha-Vinh P. Blum-Boisgard C. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/berdeu1/ Cost-effectiveness analysis of treatments for phimosis: a comparison of surgical and medicinal approaches and their economic effect] BJU Int 87(3):239-244, 2001.</ref><ref name="Chu1999">Chu CC, Chen KC, Diau GY. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10458396&dopt=Abstract Topical steroid treatment of phimosis in boys]. J Urol. 162(3 Pt 1):861-3, (Sep) 1999.</ref>
| |
| | |
| There is a school of opinion among the medical profession that advocates and promotes a number of alternative methods where surgery, with all the attendant risks, can be avoided. Stretching of the foreskin can be accomplished manually, sometimes with [[masturbation]], also known as the Beaugé method.<ref name="Beauge1997">Beaugé M. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/beauge2/ The causes of adolescent phimosis] Br J Sex Med (Sept/Oct):26, 1997.</ref> The stretching can also be accomplished with balloons placed under the foreskin skin under [[anaesthesia]],<ref name="Ying1991">Ying H, Xiu-hua Z. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/he-zhou/ Balloon dilation treatment of phimosis in boys] Chinese Med Jour 104(6):491-493, 1991</ref>or with a tool.<ref>[http://www.glansie.com/usa/syohin.htm The Glansie] glansie.com</ref> The [[tissue expansion]] promotes the growth of new skin cells to permanently expand the narrow preputial ring that prevents retraction.
| |
| | |
| '''Dilation and Stretching'''
| |
| | |
| Skin that is under tension expands by growing additional cells. A permanent increase in size occurs by gentle stretching over a period of time. The treatment is non-traumatic and non-destructive. Manual stretching may be carried out without the aid of a medical doctor. The treatment is inexpensive. Relief of phimosis by a stretching technique has the advantage of preserving all foreskin tissue and the sexual pleasure nerves. The Beaugé Method has proved successful for many.
| |
| | |
| ==Incidence== | |
| A number of medical reports of phimosis incidence have been published over the years. They vary widely because of the difficulties of distinguishing physiological phimosis (developmental nonretractility) from pathological phimosis, definitional differences, ascertainment problems, and the multiple additional influences on post-neonatal circumcision rates in cultures where most newborn males are circumcised. A commonly cited incidence statistic for pathological phimosis is 1% of uncircumcised males.<ref name="Cantu" /><ref name="Shankar1999" /><sup>,</sup><ref name="Spilsbury2003" /> When phimosis is simply equated with nonretractility of the foreskin after age 3 years, considerably higher incidence rates have been reported.<ref name="Imamaura1997">Imamura E. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=97462004 Phimosis of infants and young children in Japan] Acta Paediatr Jpn 39:403-5, 1997. A study of phimosis prevalence in over 4,500 Japanese children reporting that over a third of uncircumcised had a nonretractile foreskin by age 3 years.
| |
| </ref><ref name="Oster1968">Øster J. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=68197098 Further fate of the foreskin. Incidence of preputial adhesions, phimosis, and smegma among Danish schoolboys] Arch Dis Child 43(228):200-3,1968</ref>
| |
| Others have described incidences in adolescents and adults as high as 50%, though it is likely that many cases of physiological phimosis or partial nonretractility were included.<ref name="Ohjimi1981">Ohjimi T, Ohjimi H. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7240535Special surgical techniques for relief of phimosis] J Dermatol Surg Oncol 7:326-30, 1981. Almost half of Japanese adolescent and adult men suffer from some degree of phimosis.</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Phimosis in history==
| |
| *According to some accounts, phimosis prevented Louis XVI of France from impregnating his wife, Marie Antoinette, for the first seven years of their marriage. She was 14 and he was 15 when they married in 1770. However, the presence and nature of his genital anomaly is not considered certain, and some scholars (Vincent Cronin and Simone Bertiere) assert that surgical repair would have been mentioned in the records of his medical treatments if it had occurred.
| |
| | |
| *US President James Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau in 1881. The autopsy report for Guiteau indicated that he had phimosis. At the time, this led to the simplistic speculation that Guiteau's murderous behavior was due to phimosis-induced insanity.
| |
| | |
| ==See also==
| |
| * [[paraphimosis]] | |
| * [[Medical analysis of circumcision]] | | * [[Medical analysis of circumcision]] |
| * [[frenulum breve]] | | * [[Frenulum breve]] |
| | |
| ==References==
| |
| {{reflist|2}}
| |
| | |
| ==Other==
| |
| :* Gairdner D. [http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/ The fate of the foreskin, a study of circumcision] ''Brit Med J'' 2:1433-7, 1949. This study was one of the first attempts to determine incidence and is still cited by both advocates and opponents of circumcision. He reported both a high rate (92%) of retractability by age 5 years (though the report is criticised because he "ran a probe around to loosen the adherence of foreskin to glans") and a high rate (20%) of boys older than 5 without full retractability.
| |
| :* Holman JR, Stuessi KA. [http://www.aafp.org/afp/990315ap/1514.html Adult circumcision] American Family Physician 1999;59(6): 1514. Technique for circumcision with some discussion of phimosis as most common indication for adult circumcision.
| |
| | |
| ==External links==
| |
| The following links are provided by advocates against circumcision and provide a discussion of alternative treatments.
| |
| *[http://foreskin.org/phi1.jpg Picture of a penis with phimosis]
| |
| *[http://foreskin.org/pin.htm Pictures of a penis with fully retracted foreskin after successful treatment of phimosis]
| |
| *[http://www.male-initiation.net/statistics.html#start Encyclopedia of Phimosis Statistics]
| |
| *[http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/ Anti-Circumcision Opinion: Conservative Treatment of Phimosis: Alternatives to Radical Circumcision]
| |
| *[http://www.norm-uk.org/ NORM-UK: Information about conservative treatment of phimosis]
| |
|
| |
|
| {{Diseases of the pelvis, genitals and breasts}} | | {{Diseases of the pelvis, genitals and breasts}} |
| | {{WikiDoc Help Menu}} |
| | {{WikiDoc Sources}} |
|
| |
|
| [[Category:Andrology]] | | [[Category:Andrology]] |
| Line 110: |
Line 40: |
| [[Category:Penis]] | | [[Category:Penis]] |
| [[Category:Urology]] | | [[Category:Urology]] |
| [[Category:Primary care]]
| |
|
| |
| {{WikiDoc Help Menu}}
| |
| {{WikiDoc Sources}}
| |