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| {{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor-In-Chief:''' {{CZ}} | | {{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor-In-Chief:''' {{CZ}} |
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| | ==[[Methemoglobinemia overview|Overview]]== |
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| | ==[[Methemoglobinemia historical perspective|Historical Perspective]]== |
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| ==Overview== | | ==[[Methemoglobinemia classification|Classification]]== |
| '''Methemoglobinemia''', also known as "met-Hb", is a disorder characterized by the presence of a higher than normal level of [[methemoglobin]] in the [[blood]]. Methemoglobin is a form of [[hemoglobin]] that does not bind [[oxygen]]. When its concentration is elevated in [[red blood cells]] a functional [[anemia]] and tissue hypoxia may occur. Normally methemoglobin levels are <1%, as measured by the co-oximetry test. Elevated levels of methemoglobin in the blood are caused when the mechanisms that defend against [[oxidative stress]] within the red blood cell are overwhelmed and the oxygen carrying [[ferrous|ferrous ion (Fe2+)]] of the [[heme]] group of the hemoglobin molecule is oxidized to the [[ferric|ferric state (Fe3+)]]. This converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin, a non-oxygen binding form of hemoglobin that binds a water molecule instead of oxygen. Spontaneous formation of methemoglobin is normally counteracted by protective enzyme systems: NADH methemoglobin reductase ([[cytochrome-b5 reductase]]) (major pathway), NADPH methemoglobin reductase (minor pathway) and to a lesser extent the ascorbic acid and glutathione enzyme systems. <ref>Ash-Bernal R, Wise, R. Acquired methemoglobinemia: 138 cases at 2 teaching hospitals. Medicine 2003 83(5):265-73. http://www.md-journal.com</ref> <ref>Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. Braunwald et al. 17th Edition, 2008</ref> <ref> Basrani BR, Manek S, Sodhi RNS, Fillery E, Manzur A. Interaction between sodium hypochlorite and chlorhexidine gluconate. J Endod, 33(8): 966 –969, August, 2007. "doi:10.1016/j.joen.2007.04.001"</ref> <ref>Heard DD, Ashworth RW. The colloidal properties of chlorhexidine and its integration with some macromolecules. J Pharm Pharmac 1968;20;505–12.</ref> <ref>Chhabra RS, Huff JE, Haseman JK, Elwell MR, Peters AC. Carcinogenicity of p-chloroaniline in rats and mice. Food Chem Toxicol 1991;29:119 –24.</ref> <ref>Burkhardt-Holm P, Oulmi Y, Schroeder A, Storch V, Braunbeck T. Toxicity of 4-chloraniline in early life stages of Zebrafish (Danio rerio): II. Cytopathology and regeneration of liver and gills after prolonged exposure to waterborne 4 chloraniline. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1999;37:85–102.</ref> <ref>Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB). A database of the National Library of Medicines TOXNET System, http://toxnet. nlm.nih.gov; last accessed Feb 2007.</ref>
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| ==Types== | | ==[[Methemoglobinemia pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]== |
| ===Congenital methemoglobinemia===
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| Due to a deficiency of the [[enzyme]] diaphorase I (NADH methemoglobin reductase), methemoglobin levels rise and the blood of met-Hb sufferers has reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. Instead of being red in colour, the arterial blood of met-Hb sufferers is brown. This results in skin of white sufferers gaining a bluish cast (thus making them "blue people"). Hereditary met-Hb is caused by a [[recessive gene]]. If only one parent has this gene, offspring will have normal-hued skin, but, if both parents carry the gene there is a chance the offspring will have blue-hued skin.
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| Another cause of congenital methemoglobinemia is seen in patients with abnormal hemoglobin variants such as hemoglobin M (HbM), or [[Hemoglobin h|hemoglobin H (HbH)]], which are not amenable to [[reduced|reduction]] despite intact enzyme systems.
| | ==[[Methemoglobinemia causes|Causes]]== |
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| Methemoglobinemia can also arise in patients with [[pyruvate kinase deficiency]] due to impaired production of [[NADH]] - the essential cofactor for diaphorase I. Similarly, patients with [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency|Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency]] may have impaired production of another co-factor, [[NADPH]].
| | ==[[Methemoglobinemia differential diagnosis|Differentiating Methemoglobinemia from other Diseases]]== |
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| [[Image:autorecessive.jpg|thumb|left|The congenital form of methemoglobinemia has an [[autosomal recessive]] pattern of inheritance.]] | | ==[[Methemoglobinemia epidemiology and demographics|Epidemiology and Demographics]]== |
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| ===Acquired/Toxic methemoglobinemia=== | | ==[[Methemoglobinemia risk factors|Risk Factors]]== |
| The protective enzyme systems normally present in red blood cells maintain methemoglobin levels at less than one percent of the total hemoglobin in healthy people. Exposure to exogenous oxidizing drugs and their metabolites (such as [[benzocaine]], [[dapsone]] and [[nitrate]]s) may accelerate the rate of formation of methemoglobin up to one-thousandfold, overwhelming the protective enzyme systems and acutely increasing methemoglobin levels. Other classical drug causes of methaemoglobinaemia include antibiotics (trimethoprim, sulphonamides and dapsone), local anaesthetics (especially lignocaine and prilocaine), and others such as aniline dyes, metoclopramide, chlorates and bromates.
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| Infants under 6 months of age are particularly susceptible to methemoglobinemia caused by nitrates ingested in drinking water, dehydration usually caused by gastroenteritis with diarrhea, sepsis and topical anesthetics containing benzocaine or prilocaine. Nitrates that are used in agricultural fertilizers leaked into the ground and may contaminate well water. The current EPA standard of 10 ppm nitrate-nitrogen for drinking water is specifically designed to protect infants.
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| It has been reported (Heard & Ashworth 1968 apud Basrani et al. 2007) that, when placed in an aqueous solution, [[Chlorhexidine Gluconate]] (antiseptic) slowly hydrolyzes and forms para-chloroaniline ([[4-Chloroaniline]], p-Chloroaniline or PCA) (24). Para-chloroaniline (PCA) has been shown to be toxic (28, 29). As an aromatic amine, the primary toxic effect is methemogloblin formation (28). Toxicological studies in rats and mice have shown that the hemopoietc system is the major target for PCA (28). In 1990, Chhabra et al (28) conducted a 90-day study (with p-chloroaniline) and found that methaemoglobin formation and accompanying haemolytic anaemia, extra-medullary haematopoiesis, and splenomegaly were indicative of erythrocyte toxicity and regenerative anemia.
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| ==Treatment== | | ==[[Methemoglobinemia screening|Screening]]== |
| Methemoglobinemia is treated with supplemental oxygen and [[methylene blue]] 1% solution (10mg/ml) 1-2mg/kg administered intravenously slowly over five minutes followed by IV flush with normal saline. Methylene blue restores the iron in hemoglobin to its normal ([[reduced]]) oxygen-carrying state. This is achieved through the [[enzyme induction|enzyme inducing]] effect of methylene blue on levels of diaphorase II (NADPH methemoglobin reductase). Diaphorase II normally contributes only a small percentage of the red blood cells reducing capacity but is pharmacologically activated by exogenous cofactors, such as methylene blue, to 5 times its normal level of activity. Genetically induced chronic low-level methemoglobinemia may be treated with oral methylene blue daily.
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| ==Symptoms== | | ==[[Methemoglobinemia natural history, complications and prognosis|Natural History, Complications and Prognosis]]== |
| Signs and symptoms of methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin >1%) include shortness of breath, cyanosis, mental status changes, headache, fatigue, exercise intolerance, dizziness and loss of consciousness. Arterial blood with elevated methemoglobin levels has a characteristic chocolate-brown color as compared to normal bright red oxygen containing arterial blood.
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| Severe methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin >50%) patients have dysrhythmias, seizures, coma and death. Healthy people may not have many symptoms with methemoglobin levels < 15%, however patients with co-morbidities such as anemia, cardiovascular disease, lung disease, sepsis, or presence of other abnormal hemoglobin species (e.g. carboxyhemoglobin, sulfehemoglobin or sickle hemoglobin) may experience moderate to severe symptoms at much lower levels (as low as 5-8%).
| | ==Diagnosis== |
| | [[Methemoglobinemia history and symptoms| History and Symptoms]] | [[Methemoglobinemia physical examination | Physical Examination]] |[[Methemoglobinemia laboratory findings|Laboratory Findings]] | [[Methemoglobinemia chest x ray|Chest X Ray]] | [[Methemoglobinemia CT|CT]] | [[Methemoglobinemia MRI|MRI]] | [[Methemoglobinemia ultrasound|Ultrasound]] | [[Methemoglobinemia other imaging findings|Other Imaging Findings]] | [[Methemoglobinemia other diagnostic studies|Other Diagnostic Studies]] |
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| ==Carriers== | | ==Treatment== |
| The Fugates, a family that lived in the hills of Kentucky, are the most famous example of this hereditary chromosomal error. Known as the Blue Fugates, Martin Fugate, settled near Hazard, Kentucky, circa 1800. His wife was a carrier of the [[recessive gene|recessive]] methemoglobinemia (met-H) [[gene]], as was a nearby clan with whom the Fugates intermarried. As a result, many descendants of the Fugates were born with met-H.
| | [[Methemoglobinemia medical therapy|Medical Therapy]] | [[Methemoglobinemia primary prevention|Primary Prevention]] | [[Methemoglobinemiasecondary prevention|Secondary Prevention]] | [[Methemoglobinemia cost-effectiveness of therapy|Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy]] | [[Methemoglobinemia future or investigational therapies|Future or Investigational Therapies]] |
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| The 'blue men of Lurgan' were a pair of Lurgan men suffering from what was described as 'familial [[idiopathic]] methaemoglobinaemia' who were treated by Dr. James Deeny in 1942. Deeny, who would later become the Chief Medical Officer of the Republic of Ireland, prescribed a course of [[ascorbic acid]] and [[sodium bicarbonate]]. In case one, by the eighth day of treatment there was a marked change in appearance and by the twelfth day of treatment the patient's complexion was normal. In case two, the patient's complexion reached normality over a month-long duration of treatment. Reference to these cases is found in the British Medical Journal, June 12, Vol. 1 ,pg. 721, written by J. Deeny, E.T. Murdock and J.J. Rogan and appears also in the book of essays, ''The End of an Epidemic'', by James Deeny ISBN I 899047 06 9.
| | ==Case Studies== |
| | [[Methemoglobinemia case study one|Case#1]] |
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| ==References== | | ==References== |