Industrial and organizational psychology: Difference between revisions

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'''{{PAGENAME}}''' is "the branch of applied psychology concerned with the application of psychologic principles and methods to industrial problems including selection and training of workers, working conditions, etc."<ref>{{MeSH|Industrial psychology}}</ref>
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' is "the branch of applied psychology concerned with the application of psychologic principles and methods to industrial problems including selection and training of workers, working conditions, etc."<ref>{{MeSH|Industrial psychology}}</ref>  


==Organizational culture and climate==
Research studies in organizational psychology can be:
Organizational culture is "beliefs and values shared by all members of the organization. These shared values, which are subject to change, are reflected in the day to day management of the organization"<ref>{{MeSH|Organizational culture}}</ref>. Components of culture have been described based on anthropology<ref>Schein, E. H. (1984). [http://www.sietmanagement.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/culture_schein-1.pdf Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture]. Sloan management review, 25(2), 3-16.</ref><ref>Schein, E. H. (1983). [http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a126356.pdf The role of the founder in creating organizational culture]. Organizational dynamics, 12(1), 13-28.</ref><ref>Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). [http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1962-00928-000 Variations in value orientations]. Oxford, England: Row, Peterson.</ref>.
* Experimental or causal studies. Ex-vivo laboratory with volunteers in simulations or games.
* Observational or correlational studies. In-vivo field studies.
 
==Organizational states==
Differences between the states have been challenged and instead an A-factor has been proposed<ref name="JosephNewman2010">{{cite journal|last1=Joseph|first1=Dana L.|last2=Newman|first2=Daniel A.|last3=Hulin|first3=Charles L.|title=JOB ATTITUDES AND EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT: A META-ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCT REDUNDANCY.|journal=Academy of Management Proceedings|volume=2010|issue=1|year=2010|pages=1–6|issn=0065-0668|doi=10.5465/ambpp.2010.54492404}}</ref>. However, this assesrtion has been challenged<ref name="WoznyjBanks2020">{{cite journal|last1=Woznyj|first1=Haley|last2=Banks|first2=George|last3=Whelpley|first3=Christopher|last4=Batchelor|first4=John|last5=Bosco|first5=Frank A.|title=Job Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review and the Creation of a Temporal Theoretical Framework|journal=Academy of Management Proceedings|volume=2020|issue=1|year=2020|pages=12492|issn=0065-0668|doi=10.5465/AMBPP.2020.284}}</ref>.
 
Workforce wellbeing has been described as a combination states, "job satisfaction, work engagement, and lower burnout"<ref name="BroeckVansteenkisteWitte2010">{{cite journal | last1 = Broeck | first1 = Anja | last2 = Vansteenkiste | first2 = Maarten | last3 = Witte | first3 = Hans | last4 = Soenens | first4 = Bart | last5 = Lens | first5 = Willy | title = Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale | journal = Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology | date = December 2010 | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 981–1002 | issn = 0963-1798 | doi = 10.1348/096317909X481382 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.


Organizational culture affects organizational effectiveness<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hartnell|first=CA|title=Supplemental Material for A Meta-Analytic Test of Organizational Culture’s Association With Elements of an Organization’s System and Its Relative Predictive Validity on Organizational Outcomes|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|year=2019|issn=0021-9010|doi=10.1037/apl0000380.supp}}</ref>
.
===Organizational states===
* [[Flourishing(psychology)|Flourishing]]
* [[Flourishing(psychology)|Flourishing]]
* [[Thriving (psychology)|Thriving]]
* [[Thriving (psychology)|Thriving]]
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* [[Burnout (psychology)|Burnout]]
* [[Burnout (psychology)|Burnout]]


====Flourishing====
Organizational commitment, while not strictly a state, has conceptual overlaps with engagement. Meyer and Allen's proposes a three-factor organizational commitment scale (OCS)<ref name="Meyer2007">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z| title = A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment| journal = Human Resource Management Review| volume = 1| pages = 61–89| year = 1991| last1 = Meyer | first1 = J. P. | last2 = Allen | first2 = N. J. }}</ref>: affective, continuance, normative<ref name="Bar-Haim,2019">{{Cite book| publisher = World Scientific| isbn = 978-981-323-215-0| pages = 13–19| last = Bar-Haim| first = Aviad| title = Organizational Commitment| chapter = Measuring Organizational Commitment| accessdate = 2020-07-05| date = 2017-09-21| chapterurl = https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9789813232167_0003}}</ref><ref name="Bar-Haim,2019.GoogleBooks">{{Cite book| publisher = World Scientific| isbn = 978-981-323-217-4| last = Bar-haim| first = Aviad| title = Organizational Commitment: The Case Of Unrewarded Behavior| date = 2019-04-12 | URL = https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=e-aWDwAAQBAJ}} (Google Books)</ref>. Engagement, especially dedication, is correlated with commitment<ref name="Christian,2017">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.5465/ambpp.2007.26536346| issn = 0065-0668| volume = 2007| issue = 1| pages = 1–6| last1 = Christian| first1 = Michael S.| last2 = Slaughter| first2 = Jerel E.| title = Work engagement: a meta-analytic review and directions for research in an emerging area.| journal = Academy of Management Proceedings| accessdate = 2020-07-05| date = 2007-08-01| url = https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/ambpp.2007.26536346}}</ref>.
Flourishing involves a positive state of psychological or social well-being and positive functioning  (not necessarily learning) and addresses life in general rather than just work.<ref>Spreitzer, Gretchen, et al. "A socially embedded model of thriving at work." Organization science 16.5 (2005): 537-549. {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1050.0153}}</ref> However, the concept is variably conceptualized thus making it difficult to study.<ref>Hone, Lucy Clare, et al. "Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing." (2014): 62-90. {{doi|10.5502/ijw.v4i1.4}}</ref>
 
Outcomes of these states are discussed in the separate "Outcomes" section below this.
 
===Flourishing===
Flourishing involves a positive state of psychological or social well-being and positive functioning  (not necessarily learning) and addresses life in general rather than just work.<ref>Spreitzer, Gretchen, et al. "A socially embedded model of thriving at work." Organization Science 16.5 (2005): 537-549. {{doi|10.1287/orsc.1050.0153}}</ref>  
 
Keys recommends measuring with the 14-item [https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/health-happiness/mental-health-continuum-short-form/ Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF)]<ref name="10.1287/orsc.1050.0153">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Spreitzer, G. M.)), ((Sutcliffe, K.)), ((Dutton, J.)), ((Sonenshein, S.)), ((Grant, A. M.)) | journal=Organization Science | title=A Socially Embedded Model of Thriving at Work | volume=16 | issue=5 | pages=537–549 | date= 2005 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25145991 | issn=1047-7039 | doi = 10.1287/orsc.1050.0153 | access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| edition = 1st ed| publisher = American Psychological Association| isbn = 978-1-55798-930-7| others = Corey L. M. Keyes, Jonathan Haidt (eds.)| title = Flourishing: positive psychology and the life well-lived| location = Washington, DC| date = 2003}}</ref>:
* psychological or social well-being
* high score on 6 of 11 scales of positive functioning
 
However, the concept is variably conceptualized thus making it difficult to study.<ref name="10.5502/ijw.v4i1.4}">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Hone, L. C.)), ((Jarden, A.)), ((Schofield, G. M.)), ((Duncan, S.)) | journal=International Journal of Wellbeing | title=Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing | volume=4 | issue=1 | date= 2014 | url=https://www.internationaljournalofwellbeing.org/index.php/ijow/article/view/286 | doi=10.5502/ijw.v4i1.4}}
</ref> Some authors do not include positive functioning<ref name="HuppertSo2011">{{cite journal | last1 = Huppert | first1 = Felicia A. | last2 = So | first2 = Timothy T. C. | title = Flourishing Across Europe: Application of a New Conceptual Framework for Defining Well-Being | journal = Social Indicators Research | date = 15 December 2011 | volume = 110 | issue = 3 | pages = 837–861 | issn = 0303-8300 | eissn = 1573-0921 | doi = 10.1007/s11205-011-9966-7 | pmid = 23329863 | pmc = 3545194 | url = }}</ref>.


Important contributors to flourishing focus on relationships with others at work and are<ref>Colbert, Amy E., Joyce E. Bono, and Radostina K. Purvanova. "Flourishing via workplace relationships: Moving beyond instrumental support." Academy of Management Journal 59.4 (2016): 1199-1223. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2014.0506 }}</ref>:
Important contributors to flourishing focus on relationships with others at work and are<ref>Colbert, Amy E., Joyce E. Bono, and Radostina K. Purvanova. "Flourishing via workplace relationships: Moving beyond instrumental support." Academy of Management Journal 59.4 (2016): 1199-1223. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2014.0506 }}</ref>:
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* Friendship (due to positive emotions at work)
* Friendship (due to positive emotions at work)
* Personal growth (due to impact on life satisfaction).
* Personal growth (due to impact on life satisfaction).
; Measurement
A six-point scale has been proposed<ref name="pmid30933213">{{cite journal| author=VanderWeele TJ, McNeely E, Koh HK| title=Reimagining Health-Flourishing. | journal=JAMA | year= 2019 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=30933213 | doi=10.1001/jama.2019.3035 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30933213  }} </ref><ref name="pmid28705870">{{cite journal| author=VanderWeele TJ| title=On the promotion of human flourishing. | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | year= 2017 | volume= 114 | issue= 31 | pages= 8148-8156 | pmid=28705870 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1702996114 | pmc=5547610 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28705870  }} </ref>.


A short scale to measure flourishing has been proposed.<ref>Diener, Ed, et al. "New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings." Social Indicators Research 97.2 (2010): 143-156. {{doi|10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y}}</ref>
A short scale to measure flourishing has been proposed.<ref>Diener, Ed, et al. "New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings." Social Indicators Research 97.2 (2010): 143-156. {{doi|10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y}}</ref>


====Thriving====
===Thriving===
Thriving has two components according to factor analysis<ref name="Porath2012">Porath, C., Spreitzer, G., Gibson, C., & Garnett, F. G. (2012). Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 250-275. {{doi|10.1002/job.756}}</ref>:
Thriving has two components according to factor analysis<ref name="Porath Spreitzer Gibson Garnett pp. 250–275">{{cite journal | last=Porath | first=Christine | last2=Spreitzer | first2=Gretchen | last3=Gibson | first3=Cristina | last4=Garnett | first4=Flannery G. | title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement | journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | volume=33 | issue=2 | date=2011-05-19 | issn=0894-3796 | doi=10.1002/job.756 | pages=250–275}}</ref>:
* Vitality. In this analysis, vitality is very similar to Schaufeli's Vigor subscale of the EWES-9 Engagement scale (see 'Engagement' below)
* Vitality. In this analysis, vitality is very similar to Schaufeli's Vigor subscale of the UWES-9 Engagement scale (see 'Engagement' below)
* Sense of learning or improvement
* Sense of learning or improvement
One similar, proposed definition is<ref name="BarnesWagnerSchabram2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Barnes | first1 = Christopher M. | last2 = Wagner | first2 = David T. | last3 = Schabram | first3 = Kira | last4 = Boncoeur | first4 = Dorian | title = Human Sustainability and Work: A Meta-Synthesis and New Theoretical Framework | journal = Journal of Management | date = 31 October 2022 | page = 014920632211315 | issn = 0149-2063 | eissn = 1557-1211 | doi = 10.1177/01492063221131541 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>"
{{quote|an employee who is thriving in a state of optimal health as one for whom the functions of maintenance, growth, and generativity support each other}}
Alternatively, Microsoft has defined in their Work Trend Index that thriving is "“to be energized and empowered to do meaningful work.”<ref name="Klinghoffer,2023">{{cite web | last=Klinghoffer | first=Dawn | last2=McCune | first2=Elizabeth | title=Why Microsoft Measures Employee Thriving, Not Engagement | website=Harvard Business Review | date=2023-02-06 | url=https://hbr.org/2022/06/why-microsoft-measures-employee-thriving-not-engagement | access-date=2023-06-18 | page=}}</ref> Thus, Microsoft's "energized" maps to Spreitzer's vitality and "empowered" implies learning and improvement. Microsoft includes questions such as:
* "Would you say you are thriving or struggling with the following types of bonds or relationships at work?"


A separate body of research has emerged more recently that gives a broader definition to thriving, but does not cite the above research that has used factor analysis to identify core features<ref><ref name="pmid28913621">{{cite journal| author=Brady KJS, Trockel MT, Khan CT, Raj KS, Murphy ML, Bohman B et al.| title=What Do We Mean by Physician Wellness? A Systematic Review of Its Definition and Measurement. | journal=Acad Psychiatry | = 2017 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=28913621 | doi=10.1007/s40596-017-0781-6 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28913621  }} </ref><ref>Feeney, B. C., & Collins, N. L. (2015). A new look at social support: A theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(2), 113-147. {{doi|10.1177/1088868314544222}}</ref>.
A separate body of research has emerged more recently that gives a broader definition to thriving, but does not cite the above research that has used factor analysis to identify core features<ref><ref name="pmid28913621">{{cite journal| author=Brady KJS, Trockel MT, Khan CT, Raj KS, Murphy ML, Bohman B et al.| title=What Do We Mean by Physician Wellness? A Systematic Review of Its Definition and Measurement. | journal=Acad Psychiatry | = 2017 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=28913621 | doi=10.1007/s40596-017-0781-6 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28913621  }} </ref><ref>Feeney, B. C., & Collins, N. L. (2015). A new look at social support: A theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(2), 113-147. {{doi|10.1177/1088868314544222}}</ref>.


Thriving is negatively correlated with [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]]<ref name="Porath Spreitzer Gibson Garnett pp. 250–275">{{cite journal | last=Porath | first=Christine | last2=Spreitzer | first2=Gretchen | last3=Gibson | first3=Cristina | last4=Garnett | first4=Flannery G. | title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement | journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | volume=33 | issue=2 | date=2011-05-19 | issn=0894-3796 | doi=10.1002/job.756 | pages=250–275}}</ref><ref name="pmid27631555">{{cite journal| author=Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C| title=Transformational Leadership and Burnout: The Role of Thriving and Followers' Openness to Experience. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | = 2016 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=27631555 | doi=10.1037/ocp0000051 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27631555  }} </ref>; however, this benefit may be confined to employees with a high openness to experience<ref name="pmid27631555">{{cite journal| author=Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C| title=Transformational leadership and burnout: The role of thriving and followers' openness to experience. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | year= 2018 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages= 31-43 | pmid=27631555 | doi=10.1037/ocp0000051 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27631555  }} </ref>
==== Importance====
87% of U.S. workers across industries report that their job "requires [the respondent] to learn new things".<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((NORC)) | year=2017 | title=Quality of Working Life | url=https://gss.norc.org/Pages/quality-of-worklife.aspx | access-date=7 June 2022}}
 
 
https://gssdataexplorer.norc.org/variables/2774/vshow</ref>
 
==== Measurement ====
Thriving can be measured<ref name="PorathSpreitzer2012">{{cite journal|last1=Porath|first1=Christine|last2=Spreitzer|first2=Gretchen|last3=Gibson|first3=Cristina|last4=Garnett|first4=Flannery G.|title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=33|issue=2|year=2012|pages=250–275|issn=08943796|doi=10.1002/job.756}}</ref>:
* "I see myself continually improving"
* "I continue to learn more as time goes by"
 
Thriving can also be measured by<ref name="CARMELI SPREITZER 2009 pp. 169–191">{{cite journal | last=CARMELI | first=ABRAHAM | last2=SPREITZER | first2=GRETCHEN M. | title=Trust, Connectivity, and Thriving: Implications for Innovative Behaviors at Work | journal=The Journal of Creative Behavior | publisher=Wiley | volume=43 | issue=3 | year=2009 | issn=0022-0175 | doi=10.1002/j.2162-6057.2009.tb01313.x | pages=169–191}}</ref>:
* "To what extent do you learn new things at work?
* "To what extent do the things you learn at work help your in your life"
* "To what extent do the things you learn at work enable you to thrive in life"
Responses range from 1 = “not at all” to 5 = “to an exceptional degree”
 
A component of thriving can be measured by<ref name="pmid21345225">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Palmer R, Lanham H, Jordan M, McDaniel RR, Noël PH | display-authors=etal| title=Reciprocal learning and chronic care model implementation in primary care: results from a new scale of learning in primary care. | journal=BMC Health Serv Res | year= 2011 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 44 | pmid=21345225 | doi=10.1186/1472-6963-11-44 | pmc=3050698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21345225  }} </ref>:
* "I am frequently taught new things by other people in this clinic."
 
==== Antecedents ====
The antecedents of thriving have been reviewed<ref name="pmid34421715">{{cite journal| author=Liu D, Zhang S, Wang Y, Yan Y| title=The Antecedents of Thriving at Work: A Meta-Analytic Review. | journal=Front Psychol | year= 2021 | volume= 12 | issue=  | pages= 659072 | pmid=34421715 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.659072 | pmc=8374041 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34421715  }} </ref>. Thriving is negatively correlated with [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]]<ref name="Porath Spreitzer Gibson Garnett pp. 250–275">{{cite journal | last=Porath | first=Christine | last2=Spreitzer | first2=Gretchen | last3=Gibson | first3=Cristina | last4=Garnett | first4=Flannery G. | title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement | journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | volume=33 | issue=2 | date=2011-05-19 | issn=0894-3796 | doi=10.1002/job.756 | pages=250–275}}</ref><ref name="pmid27631555">{{cite journal| author=Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C| title=Transformational Leadership and Burnout: The Role of Thriving and Followers' Openness to Experience. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | = 2016 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=27631555 | doi=10.1037/ocp0000051 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27631555  }} </ref>; however, this benefit may be confined to employees with high openness to experience<ref name="pmid27631555">{{cite journal| author=Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C| title=Transformational leadership and burnout: The role of thriving and followers' openness to experience. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | year= 2018 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages= 31-43 | pmid=27631555 | doi=10.1037/ocp0000051 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27631555  }} </ref>
 
Thriving is fostered among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional by an "employee involvement climate", defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization"<ref name="doi:10.1177/0149206313506462">Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. {{doi|10.1177/0149206313506462}}</ref>.


Thriving is fostered among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional by a "employee involvement climate", defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization"<ref name="doi:10.1177/0149206313506462">Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. {{doi|10.1177/0149206313506462}}</ref>.
==== Outcomes ====
A [[meta-analysis]] by Kleine found that "that thriving exhibits small, albeit incremental predictive validity above and beyond positive affect and work engagement, for task performance, job satisfaction, subjective health, and burnout".<ref name="Kleine2019">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Kleine, A.-K.)), ((Rudolph, C. W.)), ((Zacher, H.)) | journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior | title=Thriving at work: A meta-analysis | volume=40 | issue=9–10 | pages=973–999 | date= 2019 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/job.2375 | issn=1099-1379 | doi=10.1002/job.2375 | access-date=14 January 2023}}</ref>


====Engagement ====
===Engagement ===
Engagement has three dimensions according to factor analysis<ref name="Schaufeli Bakker Salanova 2006 pp. 701–716">{{cite journal | last=Schaufeli | first=Wilmar B. | last2=Bakker | first2=Arnold B. | last3=Salanova | first3=Marisa | title=The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire | journal=Educational and Psychological Measurement | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=66 | issue=4 | year=2006 | issn=0013-1644 | doi=10.1177/0013164405282471 | pages=701–716}}</ref>:
Engagement has three dimensions according to factor analysis<ref name="Schaufeli Bakker Salanova 2006 pp. 701–716">{{cite journal | last=Schaufeli | first=Wilmar B. | last2=Bakker | first2=Arnold B. | last3=Salanova | first3=Marisa | title=The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire | journal=Educational and Psychological Measurement | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=66 | issue=4 | year=2006 | issn=0013-1644 | doi=10.1177/0013164405282471 | pages=701–716}}</ref>:
* Vigor (physical engagement)
* Vigor (physical engagement)
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* Absorption (cognitive engagement)
* Absorption (cognitive engagement)


Engagement can be measured by several validated scales<ref>Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire: A Cross-National Study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716. {{doi|10.1177/0013164405282471}}</ref><ref>Rich, B. L., Lepine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R. (2010). Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of management journal, 53(3), 617-635 {{doi|10.5465/AMJ.2010.51468988}}</ref>.
Engagement depends on both organizational factors and personnel personality<ref name="YoungGlerum2018">{{cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Henry R.|last2=Glerum|first2=David R.|last3=Wang|first3=Wei|last4=Joseph|first4=Dana L.|title=Who are the most engaged at work? A meta-analysis of personality and employee engagement|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|year=2018|issn=08943796|doi=10.1002/job.2303}}</ref>.
* Inadequate job resources are a cause as found in the job demands-resources model of burnout<ref name="pmid11419809">{{cite journal| author=Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB| title=The job demands-resources model of burnout. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2001 | volume= 86 | issue= 3 | pages= 499-512 | pmid=11419809 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11419809  }} </ref>.
* Engagement is associated with organizational success<ref>Schneider, B., Yost, A. B., Kropp, A., Kind, C., & Lam, H. (2017). Workforce engagement: What it is, what drives it, and why it matters for organizational performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior. {{{doi|10.1002/job.2244}}</ref><ref>Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). [http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2002-12397-006 Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis]. Journal of applied psychology, 87(2), 268.</ref>, including in health care<ref name="pmid26086062">{{cite journal| author=Bailey C, Madden A, Alfes K, Fletcher L, Robinson D, Holmes J et al.| title=Evaluating the evidence on employee engagement and its potential benefits to NHS staff: a narrative synthesis of the literature | journal=Health Services and Delivery Research | year= 2015 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=26086062 | doi=10.3310/hsdr03260 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>.
* Engagement is associated with leadership styles<ref>Beck, R., & Harter, Ji. (2015, April 21). Managers Account for 70% of Variance in Employee Engagement. Available at: https://news.gallup.com/businessjournal/182792/managers-account-variance-employee-engagement.aspx</ref>
* Employee personality may account for 50% of variance in engagement<ref name="HuBentler1999">{{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Li‐tze|last2=Bentler|first2=Peter M.|title=Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives|journal=Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal|volume=6|issue=1|year=1999|pages=1–55|issn=1070-5511|doi=10.1080/10705519909540118}}</ref>. Associated personality traits are positive affectivity, proactive personality, conscientiousness, and extraversion.
 
Macey and Schneider have divided engagement into<ref name="Macey2008">>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Macey, W. H.)), ((Schneider, B.)) | journal=Industrial and Organizational Psychology | title=The Meaning of Employee Engagement | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=3–30 | date= March 2008 | url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.0002.x | issn=1754-9426, 1754-9434 | doi=10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.0002.x | access-date=25 July 2016}}</ref>


Engagement depends on both organizational factors and personnel personality<ref name="YoungGlerum2018">{{cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Henry R.|last2=Glerum|first2=David R.|last3=Wang|first3=Wei|last4=Joseph|first4=Dana L.|title=Who are the most engaged at work? A meta-analysis of personality and employee engagement|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|year=2018|issn=08943796|doi=10.1002/job.2303}}</ref>.
* Trait engagement (disposition)
Inadequate job resources are a cause as found in the job demands-resources model of burnout<ref name="pmid11419809">{{cite journal| author=Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB| title=The job demands-resources model of burnout. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2001 | volume= 86 | issue= 3 | pages= 499-512 | pmid=11419809 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11419809 }} </ref>.
 
* State engagement (feelings as described above by Schaufeli)
 
* Behavioral (outcomes - extra-role behavior). Google has chosen to measure behavioral engagement: innovation, execution, and employee retention<ref ="Bock2015">{{cite book | vauthors=((Bock, L.)) | date=7 April 2015 | chapter=Work Rules!: Insights from Inside Google That Will Transform How You Live and Lead | title=Let the Inmates Run the Asylum | publisher=Twelve | isbn=1-4447-9238-5}}</ref>.
Engagement and burnout may be related<ref name="González-RomáSchaufeliBakker2006">{{cite journal | last1 = González-Romá | first1 = Vicente | last2 = Schaufeli | first2 = Wilmar B. | last3 = Bakker | first3 = Arnold B. | last4 = Lloret | first4 = Susana | title = Burnout and work engagement: Independent factors or opposite poles? | journal = Journal of Vocational Behavior | date = February 2006 | volume = 68 | issue = 1 | pages = 165–174 | issn = 0001-8791 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvb.2005.01.003 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>:
* Emotional exhaustion may be the opposite of vigor
* Cynicism may be the opposite of dedication
 
;Measurement
 
Engagement can be measured by several validated scales<ref name="Schaufeli2006">Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire: A Cross-National Study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716. {{doi|10.1177/0013164405282471}}</ref><ref name="Rich2010">Rich, B. L., Lepine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R. (2010). Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of management journal, 53(3), 617-635 {{doi|10.5465/AMJ.2010.51468988}}</ref>.
* Schaufeli's UWES-9 contains 9 question measuring the three scales vigor, dedication, and absorption.<ref name="Schaufeli2006"/> The single highest loading question for each scale is below what the two additional items for each factor:
** Vigor: "At my work, I feel bursting with energy"
*** "At my job, I feel strong and vigorous."
*** "When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work"
** Dedication: "I am enthusiastic about my job"
*** "My job inspires me"
*** "I am proud of the work that I do"
** Absorption: "I am immersed in my work"
*** "I get carried away when I’m working"
*** "I feel happy when I am working intensely"
* Three item variants of Schaufeli's UWES-9 using one item from each factor.
**A UWES-3 using the three items that loaded first for each dimension has been validated in German university students<ref name="GusyLesenerWolter2019">{{cite journal | last1 = Gusy | first1 = Burkhard | last2 = Lesener | first2 = Tino | last3 = Wolter | first3 = Christine | title = Measuring Well-Being With the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale – Student Form | journal = European Journal of Health Psychology | date = April 2019 | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 31–38 | issn = 2512-8442 | eissn = 2512-8450 | doi = 10.1027/2512-8442/a000027 | pmid = | url = }}</ref> and in diverse settings across 5 countries<ref name="SchaufeliShimazuHakanen2019">{{cite journal | last1 = Schaufeli | first1 = Wilmar B. | last2 = Shimazu | first2 = Akihito | last3 = Hakanen | first3 = Jari | last4 = Salanova | first4 = Marisa | last5 = De Witte | first5 = Hans | title = An Ultra-Short Measure for Work Engagement | journal = European Journal of Psychological Assessment | date = July 2019 | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 577–591 | issn = 1015-5759 | eissn = 2151-2426 | doi = 10.1027/1015-5759/a000430 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
** An other 3-item version of the UWES-9 has been validated that has the following variation<ref name="pmid32802343">{{cite journal| author=Choi M, Suh C, Choi SP, Lee CK, Son BC| title=Validation of the Work Engagement Scale-3, used in the 5th Korean Working Conditions Survey. | journal=Ann Occup Environ Med | year= 2020 | volume= 32 | issue= | pages= e27 | pmid=32802343 | doi=10.35371/aoem.2020.32.e27 | pmc=7406668 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32802343 }} </ref>:
*** "Time flies when I am working" for absorption
** Another 3-item version of the UWES, using the variations below, has been validated<ref name="HakanenRopponenSchaufeli2019">{{cite journal | last1 = Hakanen | first1 = Jari J. | last2 = Ropponen | first2 = Annina | last3 = Schaufeli | first3 = Wilmar B. | last4 = De Witte | first4 = Hans | title = Who is Engaged at Work? | journal = Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine | date = May 2019 | volume = 61 | issue = 5 | pages = 373–381 | issn = 1076-2752 | doi = 10.1097/JOM.0000000000001528 | pmid = 30557226 | url = }}</ref>:
*** "At my work, I feel full of energy" (vigor)
*** "Time flies when I am working" (absorption)
** Another 3-item version of the UWES, using the variations below, has been validated<ref name="MatthewsMillsWise2020">{{cite journal | last1 = Matthews | first1 = Russell A. | last2 = Mills | first2 = Maura J. | last3 = Wise | first3 = Shelby | title = Advancing Research and Practice Through an Empirically Validated Short-Form Measure of Work Engagement | journal = Occupational Health Science | date = 31 July 2020 | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 305–331 | issn = 2367-0134 | eissn = 2367-0142 | doi = 10.1007/s41542-020-00071-4 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>:
*** "At my job, I feel strong and vigorous" (vigor)
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Benchmarks for selected items from the UWES-9<ref name="Schaufeli2006"/> engagement survey
|-
! Dimension
! Item
! style="text-align:center;" | APA, 2014<br/>(always, very often)
! style="text-align:center;" | NHS, 2019<br/>(always, often)
|-
| Vigor
| I look forward to going to work.(NHS)<br/>When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work (APA)
| style="text-align:center;" | 33
| style="text-align:center;" | 60
|-
| Dedication
| I am enthusiastic about my job.
| style="text-align:center;" | 40
| style="text-align:center;" | 75
|-
| Absorption
| Time passes quickly when I am at work (NHS)<br/>I am immersed in my work (APA)
| style="text-align:center;" | 40
| style="text-align:center;" | 76
|-
| Mean score
|
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" | 3.62 (across 9 items)
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | American Psychological Association (2014). 2014 Work and Well-Being Survey. Available at http://www.apaexcellence.org/assets/general/2014-work-and-wellbeing-survey-results.pdf<br/>
National Health Service. NHS Staff Survey Results. Available at https://www.nhsstaffsurveyresults.com/homepage/national-results-2019/breakdowns-questions-2019/ (data for full-time employees of acute and combined trusts.
|}
 
Rich, Levine, and Crawford<ref name="Rich2010"/> measure engagement with three dimensions: physical, emotional, and cognitive. Example questions from these three dimensions include:
* Physical: I try my hardest to perform well on my job
* Emotional: I feel energetic at my job; I am enthusiastic in my job
* Cognitive: At work, I focus a great deal of attention on my job; At work, I am absorbed by my job


Engagement is association with organizational success<ref>Schneider, B., Yost, A. B., Kropp, A., Kind, C., & Lam, H. (2017). Workforce engagement: What it is, what drives it, and why it matters for organizational performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior. {{{doi|10.1002/job.2244}}</ref><ref>Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). [http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2002-12397-006 Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis]. Journal of applied psychology, 87(2), 268.</ref>, including in health care<ref name="pmid26086062">{{cite journal| author=Bailey C, Madden A, Alfes K, Fletcher L, Robinson D, Holmes J et al.| title=Evaluating the evidence on employee engagement and its potential benefits to NHS staff: a narrative synthesis of the literature | journal=Health Services and Delivery Research | year= 2015 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=26086062 | doi=10.3310/hsdr03260 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>.
===Satisfaction===
{{main|Job satisfaction}}


====Satisfaction====
Satisfaction with work is a "pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences”<ref>Locke EA. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. In: Dunnette MD, editor. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology [Internet]. 1st ed. Chicago: Rand McNally; 1976 [cited 2016 Dec 24]. p. 1297–343. Available from: http://www.edwinlocke.com</ref>.
Satisfaction with work is a "pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences”<ref>Locke EA. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. In: Dunnette MD, editor. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology [Internet]. 1st ed. Chicago: Rand McNally; 1976 [cited 2016 Dec 24]. p. 1297–343. Available from: http://www.edwinlocke.com</ref>.


====Burnout====
Satisfaction has been similarly measured for life in general with single questions<ref name="pmid9109282">{{cite journal| author=Wanous JP, Reichers AE, Hudy MJ| title=Overall job satisfaction: how good are single-item measures? | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 1997 | volume= 82 | issue= 2 | pages= 247-52 | pmid=9109282 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.247 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9109282  }} </ref>.
 
Job satisfaction differs from measuring life satisfaction<ref name="CheungLucas2014">{{cite journal | last1 = Cheung | first1 = Felix | last2 = Lucas | first2 = Richard E. | title = Assessing the validity of single-item life satisfaction measures: results from three large samples | journal = Quality of Life Research | date = 3 June 2014 | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 2809–2818 | issn = 0962-9343 | eissn = 1573-2649 | doi = 10.1007/s11136-014-0726-4 | pmid = 24890827 | pmc = 4221492 | url = }}</ref>.
 
===Burnout===
{{main|Burnout (psychology)}}
{{main|Burnout (psychology)}}


===Antecedents===
Workaholism more closely correlates with [[burnout]] than with engagement, although workaholism correlated with both (weakly negatively with engagement [via absorption])<ref name="SchaufeliTarisvan Rhenen2008">{{cite journal | last1 = Schaufeli | first1 = Wilmar B. | last2 = Taris | first2 = Toon W. | last3 = van Rhenen | first3 = Willem | title = Workaholism, Burnout, and Work Engagement: Three of a Kind or Three Different Kinds of Employee Well-being? | journal = Applied Psychology | date = April 2008 | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 173–203 | issn = 0269-994X | eissn = 1464-0597 | doi = 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00285.x | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 
Engagement may not simply be the opposite of burnout<ref anme="Schaufeli2004">Schaufeli, W.B. and Bakker, A.B. (2004), Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi‐sample study. J. Organiz. Behav., 25: 293-315. {{doi|10.1002/job.248}}</ref>. Engagement and burnout may be related more specifically<ref name="González-RomáSchaufeliBakker2006">{{cite journal | last1 = González-Romá | first1 = Vicente | last2 = Schaufeli | first2 = Wilmar B. | last3 = Bakker | first3 = Arnold B. | last4 = Lloret | first4 = Susana | title = Burnout and work engagement: Independent factors or opposite poles? | journal = Journal of Vocational Behavior | date = February 2006 | volume = 68 | issue = 1 | pages = 165–174 | issn = 0001-8791 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvb.2005.01.003 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>:
* Emotional exhaustion may be the opposite of vigor
* Cynicism may be the opposite of dedication
 
The distinction between burnout and [[depression]] is not clear<ref name="pmid36317749">{{cite journal| author=Sen S| title=Is It Burnout or Depression? Expanding Efforts to Improve Physician Well-Being. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2022 | volume= 387 | issue= 18 | pages= 1629-1630 | pmid=36317749 | doi=10.1056/NEJMp2209540 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=36317749  }} </ref>.


Regarding engagement and job satisfaction, meaningfulness of work strongly correlates<ref>1. Allan BA, Batz‐Barbarich C, Sterling HM, Tay L. Outcomes of Meaningful Work: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Management Studies [Internet]. [cited 2018 Nov 20];0(0). Available from: {{doi|0.1111/joms.12406}}</ref>
==Antecedents==


Regarding engagement and job satisfaction, the meaningfulness of work strongly correlates. An analogy has been proposed for housestaff wellbeing that asserts that meaningfullness (relevance) is most important<ref name="pmid38170694">{{cite journal| author=Rosenbaum L| title=What Do Trainees Want? The Rise of House Staff Unions. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2024 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=38170694 | doi=10.1056/NEJMms2308224 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=38170694  }} </ref>:


The key antecedent of thriving is proposed to be self-determination, which includes autonomy, competence, and relatedness.<ref>Spreitzer, Gretchen M., and Christine Porath. "Self-determination as nutriment for thriving: Building an integrative model of human growth at work." ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mPOHAwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory]'' (2014): 245-258.</ref> This emphasis links thriving to self-determination theory of Deci.<ref>Deci, Edward L., James P. Connell, and Richard M. Ryan. "Self-determination in a work organization." Journal of applied psychology 74.4 (1989): 580. {{doi|10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580}}</ref> Studies have validated autonomy as an antecedent of thriving<ref>Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465. {{doi|10.2307/256865}}</ref>.


How to foster thriving has been reviewed<ref>Spreitzer, Gretchen, Christine L. Porath, and Cristina B. Gibson. "Toward human sustainability: How to enable more thriving at work." Organizational Dynamics 41.2 (2012): 155-162. {{doi|10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.01.009}}</ref><ref>Spreitzer, Gretchen, and Christine Porath. "[https://hbr.org/2012/01/creating-sustainable-performance Creating sustainable performance]." Harvard Business Review 90.1 (2012): 92-99.</ref><ref>Spreitzer, Gretchen, Christine L. Porath, and Cristina B. Gibson. [https://hbr.org/product/thriving-at-work-why-its-important-and-how-to-enable-more-of-it/ROT186--ENG Thriving at Work: Why It's Important and How to Enable More of It] HBR Leadership & Managing People Case Study. 2012</ref> and includes:
<blockquote>
Sigmund Freud...thought the meaning of life was sex. Alfred Adler thought it was power. And Viktor Frankl thought it was relevance.  
</blockquote>
 
The key antecedent of thriving is proposed to be self-determination theory, which includes autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This emphasis links thriving to self-determination theory of Deci. Studies have validated autonomy as an antecedent of thriving. Autonomy may be related to creative self-efficacy.
 
Teams may be important via their connection to membership and relatedness<ref name="KjaerKowalskyRubin2021">{{cite journal | last1 = Kjaer | first1 = Klaus | last2 = Kowalsky | first2 = Rachel | last3 = Rubin | first3 = Lori A. | last4 = Willis | first4 = Lucy | last5 = Mital | first5 = Renu C. | last6 = Kazam | first6 = Jacob | last7 = Stracher | first7 = Adam | title = A Grassroots Approach to Protecting Physicians Against Burnout and Building an Engaging Practice Environment | journal = NEJM Catalyst | date = 17 November 2021 | volume = 2 | issue = 12 | issn = 2642-0007 | doi = 10.1056/CAT.21.0275 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 
How to foster thriving has been reviewed and includes:
* Providing decision-making discretion
* Providing decision-making discretion
* Sharing Information. Using transparency and [[open book management]]
* Sharing Information. Using transparency and [[open book management]]
Line 71: Line 209:
* Provide performance feedback
* Provide performance feedback
* Promote diversity
* Promote diversity
* Mastery of tasks. In 1908, the Yerkes-Dodson law<ref>Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit‐formation. Journal of comparative neurology and psychology, 18(5), 459-482.</ref>, and later the concept of 'flow' by Csikszentmihalyi<ref>Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety (Vol. 721). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.</ref>, both propose that engagement is strongest when a task is intermediate in difficulty.
* Mastery of tasks. In 1908, the Yerkes-Dodson law, and later the concept of 'flow' by Csikszentmihalyi, both propose that engagement is strongest when a task is intermediate in difficulty. Idea implementation leads to feelings of self-efficacy<ref name="MadridPatterson2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Madrid | first1 = Hector P. | last2 = Patterson | first2 = Malcolm G. | title = An Examination of the Relationship between Idea Generation versus Idea Implementation and Subsequent Self-Efficacy and Positive Affect | journal = Journal of Business and Psychology | date = 25 May 2022 | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 529–537 | issn = 0889-3268 | eissn = 1573-353X | doi = 10.1007/s10869-022-09820-4 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.


====Characteristics of individuals====
Regarding autonomy, its influence can sometimes be negative, perhaps due to overconfidence<ref name="BossDahlanderIhl2021">{{cite journal | last1 = Boss | first1 = Viktoria | last2 = Dahlander | first2 = Linus | last3 = Ihl | first3 = Christoph | last4 = Jayaraman | first4 = Rajshri | title = Organizing Entrepreneurial Teams: A Field Experiment on Autonomy over Choosing Teams and Ideas | journal = Organization Science | date = 5 November 2021 | issn = 1047-7039 | eissn = 1526-5455 | doi = 10.1287/orsc.2021.1520 | pmid = | url = }}</ref><ref>Boss et al. When Autonomy Helps Team Performance — and When It Doesn’t. Harvard Business Review 2021. https://hbr.org/2021/12/when-autonomy-helps-team-performance-and-when-it-doesnt</ref>. In a in vitro study:
The "[[Big Five personality traits]]" are<ref name="digman">Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual review of psychology, 41(1), 417-440. {{doi|10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002221}}</ref><ref name="Barrick">Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta‐analysis. Personnel psychology, 44(1), 1-26. {{doi|10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x}}</ref><ref name="Neal">Neal, A., Yeo, G., Koy, A., & Xiao, T. (2012). Predicting the form and direction of work role performance from the Big 5 model of personality traits. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 175-192. {{doi|10.1002/job.742}}</ref>:
* Students were both assigned to teams and told what idea to pursue: worst performance
* Students could choose their teammates, but they were assigned an idea to work on: best performance
* Students were assigned to teams, but were given the autonomy to choose their own idea: best performance
* Students were allowed to choose both their teammates and their ideas: worst performance
 
===Characteristics of individuals===
The "[[Big Five personality traits]]" are:
* Openness to experience
* Openness to experience
* Conscientiousness  
* Conscientiousness  
Line 81: Line 225:
* Neuroticism
* Neuroticism


Of these, conscientiousness<ref name="Barrick1991">Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta‐analysis. Personnel psychology, 44(1), 1-26. {{doi|10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x}}</ref>, openness to experience<ref name="Barrick1991"/><ref name="pmid27631555">{{cite journal| author=Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C| title=Transformational leadership and burnout: The role of thriving and followers' openness to experience. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | year= 2018 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages= 31-43 | pmid=27631555 | doi=10.1037/ocp0000051 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27631555  }} </ref> and extroversion<ref name="Barrick1991"/>, may affect job performance. The effect may be complicated as open to experience may be positively related to individual and organizational proactivity but negatively related to team and organizational proficiency<ref name="Neal">Neal, A., Yeo, G., Koy, A., & Xiao, T. (2012). Predicting the form and direction of work role performance from the Big 5 model of personality traits. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 175-192. {{doi|10.1002/job.742}}</ref>.
Of these, conscientiousness, openness to experience.
 
===Characteristics of managers===


Based on a study of players in the [[National Basketball Association]], [[narcissism]] reduces team performance<ref name="GrijalvaMaynes2019">{{cite journal|last1=Grijalva|first1=Emily|last2=Maynes|first2=Timothy D.|last3=Badura|first3=Katie L.|last4=Whiting|first4=Steven W.|title=Examining the “I” in team: A longitudinal investigation of the influence of team narcissism composition on team outcomes in the NBA|journal=Academy of Management Journal|year=2019|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2017.0218}} [https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amj.2017.0218.summary Summary]</ref>
Characteristics of managers= of managers have been found to be important for physicians and nurses<ref name="pmid35742094">{{cite journal| author=López-Ibort N, Gil-Lacruz AI, Navarro-Elola L, Pastor-Tejedor AC, Pastor-Tejedor J| title=Positive Psychology: Supervisor Leadership in Organizational Citizenship Behaviors in Nurses. | journal=Healthcare (Basel) | year= 2022 | volume= 10 | issue= 6 | pages= | pmid=35742094 | doi=10.3390/healthcare10061043 | pmc=9222576 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=35742094  }} </ref>.
.


====Openness to experience====
===Knowledge sharing and hiding===
Openness to experience affects job performance<ref name="Barrick1991"/><ref name="pmid27631555">{{cite journal| author=Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C| title=Transformational leadership and burnout: The role of thriving and followers' openness to experience. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | year= 2018 | volume= 23 | issue= 1 | pages= 31-43 | pmid=27631555 | doi=10.1037/ocp0000051 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27631555  }} </ref>.
Knowledge hiding may happen in the presence of job insecurity<ref name="SerenkoBontis2016">{{cite journal | last1 = Serenko | first1 = Alexander | last2 = Bontis | first2 = Nick | title = Understanding counterproductive knowledge behavior: antecedents and consequences of intra-organizational knowledge hiding | journal = Journal of Knowledge Management | date = 10 October 2016 | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 1199–1224 | issn = 1367-3270 | doi = 10.1108/JKM-05-2016-0203 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.


=====Personality traits====
Knowledge sharing among team members is more likely when hierarchy stability across team members was low<ref name="GrayBundersonVan der Vegt2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = Steven M. | last2 = Bunderson | first2 = J. Stuart | last3 = Van der Vegt | first3 = Gerben S | last4 = Rink | first4 = Floor | last5 = Gedik | first5 = Yeliz | title = Leveraging Knowledge Diversity in Hierarchically Differentiated Teams: The Critical Role of Hierarchy Stability | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = 26 January 2022 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2020.1136 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
According to a meta-analysis, " the strongest predictor of engagement (31.10% of the explained variance; ρ = .62), followed by proactive personality (19.60%; ρ = .49), conscientiousness (14.10%; ρ = .39), and extraversion (12.10%; ρ = .40), whereas neuroticism, negative affectivity, agreeableness, and openness to experience were the least important"<ref>Young, H. R., Glerum, D. R., Wang, W., & Joseph, D. L. (2018). Who are the most engaged at work? A meta‐analysis of personality and employee engagement. Journal of Organizational Behavior {{doi|10.1002/job.2303}}</ref>.


=====Learning and performance goal orientations=====
==Theory and models of antecedents, indicators, and outcomes==
Three goal orientations have been proposed<ref>Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 461–475. {{doi|10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461}}</ref>:
The antecedents of thriving have been reviewed<ref name="pmid34421715">{{cite journal| author=Liu D, Zhang S, Wang Y, Yan Y| title=The Antecedents of Thriving at Work: A Meta-Analytic Review. | journal=Front Psychol | year= 2021 | volume= 12 | issue= | pages= 659072 | pmid=34421715 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.659072 | pmc=8374041 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34421715  }} </ref>.Yerkes-Dodson Law suggestions that the relationship between performance and arousal is bell-shaped so that performance may decrease with excessive arousal. This is similar to work by Csikszentmihaly<ref>Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1991. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. HarperCollins Publishers. {{ISBN|0061876720}}</ref>.
* Learning goal orientation
The concept of "competence frustration" (versus "flow") suggests a similar bell-shaped relationship between task difficulty and engagement<ref>Fang, H., He, B., Fu, H., & Meng, L. (2017). Being eager to prove oneself: U-shaped relationship between competence frustration and intrinsic motivation in another activity. Frontiers in psychology, 8. {{doi|10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02123 }}</ref>
* Performance‐prove orientation
* Performance‐avoid orientation


=====Regulatory focus=====
Phipps-Taylor has reviewed and merged theories to have four factors that influence engagement once Hygiene factors have been fulfilled<ref name="pmid27995705">{{cite journal| author=Phipps-Taylor M, Shortell SM| title=More Than Money: Motivating Physician Behavior Change in Accountable Care Organizations. | journal=Milbank Q | year= 2016 | volume= 94 | issue= 4 | pages= 832-861 | pmid=27995705 | doi=10.1111/1468-0009.12230 | pmc=5192815 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27995705  }} </ref>Ryff, earlier, has a very similar proposal<ref name="Ryff1989">{{cite journal | last1 = Ryff | first1 = Carol D. | title = Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | date = December 1989 | volume = 57 | issue = 6 | pages = 1069–1081 | issn = 0022-3514 | eissn = 1939-1315 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069 | pmid = | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid24281296">{{cite journal| author=Ryff CD| title=Psychological well-being revisited: advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. | journal=Psychother Psychosom | year= 2014 | volume= 83 | issue= 1 | pages= 10-28 | pmid=24281296 | doi=10.1159/000353263 | pmc=4241300 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24281296  }} </ref>. A collaboration of the NIOSH and RAND yielded similar concepts<ref name="pmid29608542">Chari R, Chang CC, Sauter SL, Petrun Sayers EL, Cerully JL, Schulte P | display-authors=etal (2018) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29608542 Expanding the Paradigm of Occupational Safety and Health: A New Framework for Worker Well-Being.] ''J Occup Environ Med'' 60 (7):589-593. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001330 DOI:10.1097/JOM.0000000000001330] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/29608542 29608542]</ref>.
Two regulatory focuses are<ref>Higgins, E. T. 1997. Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52: 1280-1300.</ref><ref name="doi:10.1177/0149206313506462">Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. {{doi|10.1177/0149206313506462}}</ref>:
* Promotion focus is associated with "growth and developmental needs and involves striving for ideals, aspirations, and rewards through accomplishment"
* Prevention focus is associated with "needs for security and safety"


=====Calling=====
{| class="wikitable"
Calling is defined as<ref>Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2009). Calling and Vocation at Work: Definitions and Prospects for Research and Practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(3), 424–450. {{doi|10.1177/0011000008316430}}</ref>:
|-
<blockquote>"A calling is a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation."</blockquote>
! Ryiff, 1989<ref name="Ryff1989"/><ref name="pmid24281296"/>
! Phipps-Taylor, 2013<ref name="pmid27995705"/>
! NIOSH-RAND, 2018<ref name="pmid29608542"/>
|-
| Purpose<br />Autonomy<br />Growth<br />Environmental Mastery<br />Relations<br />Self-acceptance<br /><br />
| Social purpose<br />Autonomy/power<br /><br />Mastery<br />Relatedness<br /><br />Hygiene factors
| Meaning/purpose<br />Autonomy/control<br /><br /><br />Peers/coworkers, manager/org support<br /><br />Hygiene factors
|}


Calling is:
===Self-determination theory===
* Positively association with engagement<ref>Chen, J., May, D. R., Schwoerer, C. E., & Augelli, B. (2018). Exploring the Boundaries of Career Calling: The Moderating Roles of Procedural Justice and Psychological Safety. Journal of Career Development, 45(2), 103–116. {{doi|10.1177/0894845316671214}}</ref> and well-being<ref>Yoon, J. D., Daley, B. M., & Curlin, F. A. (2017). The Association Between a Sense of Calling and Physician Well-Being: A National Study of Primary Care Physicians and Psychiatrists. Academic Psychiatry, 41(2), 167–173. {{doi|10.1007/s40596-016-0487-1}}</ref>.
[[Image:SelfDeterminationTheory.png|right|400px]]
* Negatively associated with burnout<ref name="pmid28189341">{{cite journal| author=Jager AJ, Tutty MA, Kao AC| title=Association Between Physician Burnout and Identification With Medicine as a Calling. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2017 | volume= 92 | issue= 3 | pages= 415-422 | pmid=28189341 | doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.11.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28189341  }} </ref>.
Self-determination theory was proposed in the early 1980s.<ref>Deci, Edward L., and Richard M. Ryan. "Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behavior." The Journal of Mind and Behavior (1980): 33-43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43852807</ref> In this theory, autonomy, mastery (competence), and relatedness have been validated as components<ref>Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 26(4), 419-435. {{doi|10.1177/0146167200266002}}</ref><ref>Broeck A, Vansteenkiste M, Witte H, Soenens B, Lens W. Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work‐related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 2010 Dec 1;83(4):981-1002. {{doi|10.1348/096317909X481382}}</ref> and contains three factors:
* Autonomy
* Mastery
* Relatedness and social connections


====Characteristics of a job====
This framework of three items was revised to four factors by Spreitzer in 1992; not clear why relatedness was not included<ref name="GagneSenecalKoestner1997">{{cite journal | last1 = Gagne | first1 = Marylene | last2 = Senecal | first2 = Caroline B. | last3 = Koestner | first3 = Richard | title = Proximal Job Characteristics, Feelings of Empowerment, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Multidimensional Model1 | journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology | date = July 1997 | volume = 27 | issue = 14 | pages = 1222–1240 | issn = 0021-9029 | eissn = 1559-1816 | doi = 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01803.x | pmid = | url = }}</ref><ref>Spreitzer, G. M. (1992). When organizations dare: The dynamics of individual empowerment in the workplace. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan. </ref>:
=====Empowerment=====
* Autonomy
Perception of empowerment by employees has four dimensions and can be measured with Spreitzer's Measuring Empowerment survey which measures<ref name="Spreitzer1995">{{cite journal|last1=Spreitzer|first1=Gretchen M.|title=Psychological Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=38|issue=5|year=1995|pages=1442–1465|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/256865}}</ref>:
* Competence
* Meaningfulness or purpose
* Meaningfulness
* Competence or efficacy
* Self-determination
** I am able to make suggestions to improve the work of my team / department.
** I am involved in deciding on changes introduced that affect my work area / team / department
* Impact
* Impact
Other surveys include:


* AHRQ/SOPS<ref>[https://www.ahrq.gov/sops/surveys/hospital/supplemental-items/value-efficiency.htmlValue and Efficiency Supplemental Items for Hospital SOPS]. Agency for Healthcare Research and QualitEfficiency Supplemental Items for Hospital SOPS</ref>
Gagne included these four themes (impact and mastery merged) in 2006<ref name="Gagne Senecal Koestner 1997 pp. 1222–1240">{{cite journal | last=Gagne | first=Marylene | last2=Senecal | first2=Caroline B. | last3=Koestner | first3=Richard | title=Proximal Job Characteristics, Feelings of Empowerment, and Intrinsic Motivation: A Multidimensional Model1 | journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology | publisher=Wiley | volume=27 | issue=14 | year=1997 | issn=0021-9029 | doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01803.x | pages=1222–1240}}</ref>.
** We are encouraged to come up with ideas for more efficient ways to do our work
 
** We are involved in making decisions about changes to our work processes
The SDT and Spreizter models were consolidated, with relatedness or membership included, by Ryff <ref name="pmid24281296">{{cite journal| author=Ryff CD| title=Psychological well-being revisited: advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. | journal=Psychother Psychosom | year= 2014 | volume= 83 | issue= 1 | pages= 10-28 | pmid=24281296 | doi=10.1159/000353263 | pmc=4241300 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24281296  }} </ref> and Phipps-Taylor<ref name="pmid27995705">{{cite journal| author=Phipps-Taylor M, Shortell SM| title=More Than Money: Motivating Physician Behavior Change in Accountable Care Organizations. | journal=Milbank Q | year= 2016 | volume= 94 | issue= 4 | pages= 832-861 | pmid=27995705 | doi=10.1111/1468-0009.12230 | pmc=5192815 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27995705  }} </ref>:
** We are given opportunities to try out solutions to workflow problems
* Ryff's six-factor model in 1989<ref name="Ryff1989">{{Citation | vauthors=((Ryff, C. D.)) | year=1989 | title=Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069}}</ref> of 1) 'autonomy', 2) 'environmental mastery', 3) 'purpose in life', 4) 'positive relationships', and the addition of 'personal growth' and 'self-acceptance'. Interestingly, the addition of personal growth presaged Spreitser's inclusion of personal growth in her subsequent model of thriving later in 2011.
* U.K. National Health Survey<ref name="pmidNBK294026">{{cite journal| author=Heiden I| title=[Dust collector for dental technology]. | journal=Zahntechnik (Berl) | year= 1978 | volume= 19 | issue= 11 | pages= 512 | pmid=NBK294026 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=294026 }} </ref>:
 
** I am able to make suggestions to improve the work of my team / department<ref name="Spreitzer1995"/>.
SDT and JDR have been integrated<ref name="pmid27783240">{{cite journal| author=Dreison KC, White DA, Bauer SM, Salyers MP, McGuire AB| title=Integrating Self-Determination and Job Demands-Resources Theory in Predicting Mental Health Provider Burnout. | journal=Adm Policy Ment Health | year= 2018 | volume= 45 | issue= 1 | pages= 121-130 | pmid=27783240 | doi=10.1007/s10488-016-0772-z | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27783240 }} </ref>.
** I am involved in deciding on changes introduced that affect my work area / team / department<ref name="Spreitzer1995"/>.
 
** I am able to make improvements happen in my area of work.
SDT has also been proposed to explain learner behavior in medical education<ref name="pmid22225433">{{cite journal| author=Ten Cate TJ, Kusurkar RA, Williams GC| title=How self-determination theory can assist our understanding of the teaching and learning processes in medical education. AMEE guide No. 59. | journal=Med Teach | year= 2011 | volume= 33 | issue= 12 | pages= 961-73 | pmid=22225433 | doi=10.3109/0142159X.2011.595435 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22225433  }} </ref>.
Empowerment affects thriving<ref>Walumbwa, F. O., Muchiri, M. K., Misati, E., Wu, C., & Meiliani, M. (2016). Fired Up To Perform: A Multilevel Examination of Antecedents and Consequences of Thriving At Work. Academy of Management Proceedings, 2016(1), 10494. {{doi|10.5465/AMBPP.2016.79}}</ref>.
 
====The components of control====
 
The dimensions of job control may include<ref name="pmid18923130">{{cite journal| author=Väänänen A, Koskinen A, Joensuu M, Kivimäki M, Vahtera J, Kouvonen A | display-authors=etal| title=Lack of predictability at work and risk of acute myocardial infarction: an 18-year prospective study of industrial employees. | journal=Am J Public Health | year= 2008 | volume= 98 | issue= 12 | pages= 2264-71 | pmid=18923130 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.122382 | pmc=2636525 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18923130  }} </ref>
* "Decision authority (i.e., decision latitude concerning one's work pace and phases, and independence from other workers while carrying out tasks)"
* "Skill discretion (i.e., the level of cognitive challenges and variety of tasks at work)"
* "Predictability on the job (i.e., the clarity of work goals and opportunity to foresee changes and problems at one's work)"
 
The Finnish Occupational Stress Questionnaire measures these dimensions with 5 questions each such as<ref>Elo A-L, Leppänen A, Lindström K, Roponen T. Occupational Stress Questionnaire: User's Instructions. Helsinki: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health; 1992 https://www.worldcat.org/title/636259833</ref>:
* Decision authority, “Can you plan your work by yourself?”)
* Skill discretion, (e.g., “Is your work monotonous or variable?”)
* Predictability, (e.g., “Can you anticipate the problems and disturbances arising in your work?”)
 
====Positive outcomes associated with self-determination====
Employee perception of the factors of [[self-determination theory]] and servant [[leadership]] are more likely to have extra-role behavior<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/jasp.12716| issn = 1559-1816| volume = n/a| issue = n/a| last1 = Brière| first1 = Mathilde| last2 = Roy| first2 = Jeanne Le| last3 = Meier| first3 = Olivier| title = Linking servant leadership to positive deviant behavior: The mediating role of self-determination theory| journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology| accessdate = 2020-10-21| url = https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jasp.12716}}</ref>. Empowerment may be important in diverse industries<ref name="pmid33342360">{{cite journal| author=Pacheco PO, Cunha MP, Abrantes ACM| title=The Impact of Empowerment and Technology on Safety Behavior: Evidence from Mining Companies. | journal=Int J Occup Saf Ergon | year= 2020 | volume=  | issue=  | pages= 1-20 | pmid=33342360 | doi=10.1080/10803548.2020.1808343 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33342360  }} </ref>.
 
Idea implementation improves wellbeing via self-efficacy<ref name="MadridPatterson2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Madrid | first1 = Hector P. | last2 = Patterson | first2 = Malcolm G. | title = An Examination of the Relationship between Idea Generation versus Idea Implementation and Subsequent Self-Efficacy and Positive Affect | journal = Journal of Business and Psychology | date = 25 May 2022 | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 529–537 | issn = 0889-3268 | eissn = 1573-353X | doi = 10.1007/s10869-022-09820-4 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 
====Negative outcomes associated with the absence self-determination====
The English [https://unhealthywork.org/classic-studies/the-whitehall-study/ Whitehall study] ([https://www.ucl.ac.uk/epidemiology-health-care/sites/epidemiology-health-care/files/w2_data_sharing_policy_v30.pdf Whitehall data sharing policy]) found that "the largest contribution to the socioeconomic gradient in CHD frequency was from low control at work" <ref name="pmid9242799">{{cite journal| author=Marmot MG, Bosma H, Hemingway H, Brunner E, Stansfeld S| title=Contribution of job control and other risk factors to social variations in coronary heart disease incidence. | journal=Lancet | year= 1997 | volume= 350 | issue= 9073 | pages= 235-9 | pmid=9242799 | doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(97)04244-x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9242799  }} </ref>.  The Whitehall study asked " Fifteen items deal with decision authority and skill discretion, and these were combined into an index of decision latitude or control". The most significant outcome was "doctor-diagnosed ischaemia".


=====Moral distress=====
A later analysis of the Whitehall II study suggests that the harm may not confined to respondents who reported that stress affected their health - rather than simply those that reported stress<ref name="pmid23804585">{{cite journal| author=Nabi H, Kivimäki M, Batty GD, Shipley MJ, Britton A, Brunner EJ | display-authors=etal| title=Increased risk of coronary heart disease among individuals reporting adverse impact of stress on their health: the Whitehall II prospective cohort study. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2013 | volume= 34 | issue= 34 | pages= 2697-705 | pmid=23804585 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/eht216 | pmc=3766148 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23804585 }} </ref>. Another follow-up analysis suggested importance to the perception of justice at work<ref name="pmid19819861">{{cite journal| author=Gimeno D, Tabák AG, Ferrie JE, Shipley MJ, De Vogli R, Elovainio M | display-authors=etal| title=Justice at work and metabolic syndrome: the Whitehall II study. | journal=Occup Environ Med | year= 2010 | volume= 67 | issue= 4 | pages= 256-62 | pmid=19819861 | doi=10.1136/oem.2009.047324 | pmc=3226946 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19819861 }} </ref>.
Moral distress, as operationalized in research studies, is the report by healthcare personnel of participating in the provision of healthcare that the healthcare personnel perceives as inappropriate due to pressure from other health care professionals or administrators of families that the health care professional perceives as inappropriate due to being<ref name="corley2001">Corley, M. C., Elswick, R. K., Gorman, M., & Clor, T. (2001). Development and evaluation of a moral distress scale. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33(2), 250–256 {{doi|10.1111/j.1365-2648.2001.01658.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid27367887">{{cite journal| author=Moss M, Good VS, Gozal D, Kleinpell R, Sessler CN| title=A Critical Care Societies Collaborative Statement: Burnout Syndrome in Critical Care Health-care Professionals. A Call for Action. | journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med | year= 2016 | volume= 194 | issue= 1 | pages= 106-13 | pmid=27367887 | doi=10.1164/rccm.201604-0708ST | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27367887 }} </ref>:
* Unnecessary or futile due to family wishes<ref name="pmid26596697">{{cite journal| author=Dodek PM, Wong H, Norena M, Ayas N, Reynolds SC, Keenan SP et al.| title=Moral distress in intensive care unit professionals is associated with profession, age, and years of experience. | journal=J Crit Care | year= 2016 | volume= 31 | issue= 1 | pages= 178-82 | pmid=26596697 | doi=10.1016/j.jcrc.2015.10.011 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26596697 }} </ref>
* Suboptimal or insufficient. For example due to lack of funding, coordination, or continuity of care<ref name="hamric2012">Hamric, A. B., Borchers, C. T., & Epstein, E. G. (2012). Development and Testing of an Instrument to Measure Moral Distress in Healthcare Professionals. AJOB Primary Research, 3(2), 1–9. {{doi|10.1080/21507716.2011.652337}}</ref>.
* Deceptive. For example, not obtaining consent, not discussing end-of-life care, giving false hope, or not disclosing intravenous medications<ref name="hamric2012">Hamric, A. B., Borchers, C. T., & Epstein, E. G. (2012). Development and Testing of an Instrument to Measure Moral Distress in Healthcare Professionals. AJOB Primary Research, 3(2), 1–9. {{doi|10.1080/21507716.2011.652337}}</ref>.


Although the use of ‘distress’ in the label suggests a negative emotional state, it’s definition inferred by measurement scales developed and used in research is that moral distress is not a state but rather is the report of participation in events that a reasonable person would interpret as distressing.
The Finnish cohort found that the association may be more specifically due to predictability at work (“Can you anticipate the problems and disturbances arising in your work?”)<ref name="pmid18923130">{{cite journal| author=Väänänen A, Koskinen A, Joensuu M, Kivimäki M, Vahtera J, Kouvonen A | display-authors=etal| title=Lack of predictability at work and risk of acute myocardial infarction: an 18-year prospective study of industrial employees. | journal=Am J Public Health | year= 2008 | volume= 98 | issue= 12 | pages= 2264-71 | pmid=18923130 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.122382 | pmc=2636525 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18923130  }} </ref>


Moral distress may also be called moral injury.  
However, the causality of these associations has been disputed in the West of Scotland collaborative study that measured stress with the Rose Questionnaire that does not specifically ask job control<ref name="pmid12028978">{{cite journal| author=Macleod J, Davey Smith G, Heslop P, Metcalfe C, Carroll D, Hart C| title=Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men. | journal=BMJ | year= 2002 | volume= 324 | issue= 7348 | pages= 1247-51 | pmid=12028978 | doi=10.1136/bmj.324.7348.1247 | pmc=113276 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12028978  }} </ref>. The Scottish studies summarize the conflict in their [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1123841/ Table].


Moral distress may be more common in nurses and pharmacists than physicians<ref name="pmid29786979">{{cite journal| author=Johnson-Coyle L, Opgenorth D, Bellows M, Dhaliwal J, Richardson-Carr S, Bagshaw SM| title=Moral distress and burnout among cardiovascular surgery intensive care unit healthcare professionals: A prospective cross-sectional survey. | journal=Can J Crit Care Nurs | year= 2016 | volume= 27 | issue= 4 | pages= 27-36 | pmid=29786979 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29786979  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25440758">{{cite journal| author=Whitehead PB, Herbertson RK, Hamric AB, Epstein EG, Fisher JM| title=Moral distress among healthcare professionals: report of an institution-wide survey. | journal=J Nurs Scholarsh | year= 2015 | volume= 47 | issue= 2 | pages= 117-25 | pmid=25440758 | doi=10.1111/jnu.12115 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25440758 }} </ref><ref name="pmid29196079">{{cite journal| author=Neumann JL, Mau LW, Virani S, Denzen EM, Boyle DA, Boyle NJ et al.| title=Burnout, Moral Distress, Work-Life Balance, and Career Satisfaction among Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Professionals. | journal=Biol Blood Marrow Transplant | year= 2018 | volume= 24 | issue= 4 | pages= 849-860 | pmid=29196079 | doi=10.1016/j.bbmt.2017.11.015 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29196079  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26596697">{{cite journal| author=Dodek PM, Wong H, Norena M, Ayas N, Reynolds SC, Keenan SP et al.| title=Moral distress in intensive care unit professionals is associated with profession, age, and years of experience. | journal=J Crit Care | year= 2016 | volume= 31 | issue= 1 | pages= 178-82 | pmid=26596697 | doi=10.1016/j.jcrc.2015.10.011 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26596697  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26380963">{{cite journal| author=de Boer JC, van Rosmalen J, Bakker AB, van Dijk M| title=Appropriateness of care and moral distress among neonatal intensive care unit staff: repeated measurements. | journal=Nurs Crit Care | year= 2016 | volume= 21 | issue= 3 | pages= e19-27 | pmid=26380963 | doi=10.1111/nicc.12206 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26380963  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23923809">{{cite journal| author=Houston S, Casanova MA, Leveille M, Schmidt KL, Barnes SA, Trungale KR et al.| title=The intensity and frequency of moral distress among different healthcare disciplines. | journal=J Clin Ethics | year= 2013 | volume= 24 | issue= 2 | pages= 98-112 | pmid=23923809 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23923809  }} </ref>. The American Association
===Job demands–resources (JD-R) framework===
of Critical-Care Nurses has created a position statement about moral distress, "The 4 A’s to Rise Above Moral Distress."<ref name="pmid21800929">{{cite journal| author=McCue C| title=Using the AACN framework to alleviate moral distress. | journal=Online J Issues Nurs | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 9 | pmid=21800929 | doi=10.3912/OJIN.Vol16No01PPT02 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21800929  }} </ref>
Job demands–resources (JD-R) framework<ref name="pmid11419809">{{cite journal| author=Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB| title=The job demands-resources model of burnout. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2001 | volume= 86 | issue= 3 | pages= 499-512 | pmid=11419809 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11419809 }} </ref> proposes that "resources energize employees and foster engagement, which, in turn, yields positive outcomes such as high levels of well-being and performance"<ref name="BaileyMadden2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=Catherine|last2=Madden|first2=Adrian|last3=Alfes|first3=Kerstin|last4=Fletcher|first4=Luke|title=The Meaning, Antecedents and Outcomes of Employee Engagement: A Narrative Synthesis|journal=International Journal of Management Reviews|volume=19|issue=1|year=2017|pages=31–53|issn=14608545|doi=10.1111/ijmr.12077}}</ref>


Scales have been developed to measure moral distress<ref name="corley2001">Corley, M. C., Elswick, R. K., Gorman, M., & Clor, T. (2001). Development and evaluation of a moral distress scale. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33(2), 250–256 {{doi|10.1111/j.1365-2648.2001.01658.x}}</ref><ref name="hamric2012">Hamric, A. B., Borchers, C. T., & Epstein, E. G. (2012). Development and Testing of an Instrument to Measure Moral Distress in Healthcare Professionals. AJOB Primary Research, 3(2), 1–9. {{doi|10.1080/21507716.2011.652337}}</ref>
This framework ties to the theory as components of the framework "are regarded as playing a motivational role, since they help fulfil human needs for autonomy, competence or relatedness".<ref name="BaileyMadden2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=Catherine|last2=Madden|first2=Adrian|last3=Alfes|first3=Kerstin|last4=Fletcher|first4=Luke|title=The Meaning, Antecedents and Outcomes of Employee Engagement: A Narrative Synthesis|journal=International Journal of Management Reviews|volume=19|issue=1|year=2017|pages=31–53|issn=14608545|doi=10.1111/ijmr.12077}}</ref>


For underlying causes, moral distress negatively correlates with perception of empowerment by healthcare personnel<ref name="pmid29961665">{{cite journal| author=Altaker KW, Howie-Esquivel J, Cataldo JK| title=Relationships Among Palliative Care, Ethical Climate, Empowerment, and Moral Distress in Intensive Care Unit Nurses. | journal=Am J Crit Care | year= 2018 | volume= 27 | issue= 4 | pages= 295-302 | pmid=29961665 | doi=10.4037/ajcc2018252 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29961665  }} </ref>.
===Social exchange theory (SET) ===
"According to SET, relationships between employees and employers are based on norms of reciprocity."<ref name="BaileyMadden2017">{{cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=Catherine|last2=Madden|first2=Adrian|last3=Alfes|first3=Kerstin|last4=Fletcher|first4=Luke|title=The Meaning, Antecedents and Outcomes of Employee Engagement: A Narrative Synthesis|journal=International Journal of Management Reviews|volume=19|issue=1|year=2017|pages=31–53|issn=14608545|doi=10.1111/ijmr.12077}}</ref>


Moral distress has been studied for correlation with states of workforce wellbeing:
* Not correlated with engagement<ref name="pmid24895952">{{cite journal| author=Mason VM, Leslie G, Clark K, Lyons P, Walke E, Butler C et al.| title=Compassion fatigue, moral distress, and work engagement in surgical intensive care unit trauma nurses: a pilot study. | journal=Dimens Crit Care Nurs | year= 2014 | volume= 33 | issue= 4 | pages= 215-25 | pmid=24895952 | doi=10.1097/DCC.0000000000000056 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24895952  }} </ref>


* Negatively correlated with job satisfaction<ref name="pmid29786979">{{cite journal| author=Johnson-Coyle L, Opgenorth D, Bellows M, Dhaliwal J, Richardson-Carr S, Bagshaw SM| title=Moral distress and burnout among cardiovascular surgery intensive care unit healthcare professionals: A prospective cross-sectional survey. | journal=Can J Crit Care Nurs | year= 2016 | volume= 27 | issue= 4 | pages= 27-36 | pmid=29786979 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29786979  }} </ref>
===Kahn's theoretical framework===
* Positively correlated with burnout<ref name="pmid29786979">{{cite journal| author=Johnson-Coyle L, Opgenorth D, Bellows M, Dhaliwal J, Richardson-Carr S, Bagshaw SM| title=Moral distress and burnout among cardiovascular surgery intensive care unit healthcare professionals: A prospective cross-sectional survey. | journal=Can J Crit Care Nurs | year= 2016 | volume= 27 | issue= 4 | pages= 27-36 | pmid=29786979 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29786979  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25440758">{{cite journal| author=Whitehead PB, Herbertson RK, Hamric AB, Epstein EG, Fisher JM| title=Moral distress among healthcare professionals: report of an institution-wide survey. | journal=J Nurs Scholarsh | year= 2015 | volume= 47 | issue= 2 | pages= 117-25 | pmid=25440758 | doi=10.1111/jnu.12115 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25440758  }} </ref><ref name="pmid29196079">{{cite journal| author=Neumann JL, Mau LW, Virani S, Denzen EM, Boyle DA, Boyle NJ et al.| title=Burnout, Moral Distress, Work-Life Balance, and Career Satisfaction among Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Professionals. | journal=Biol Blood Marrow Transplant | year= 2018 | volume= 24 | issue= 4 | pages= 849-860 | pmid=29196079 | doi=10.1016/j.bbmt.2017.11.015 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29196079  }} </ref>; however, this has not been found in all studies<ref name="pmid24895952">{{cite journal| author=Mason VM, Leslie G, Clark K, Lyons P, Walke E, Butler C et al.| title=Compassion fatigue, moral distress, and work engagement in surgical intensive care unit trauma nurses: a pilot study. | journal=Dimens Crit Care Nurs | year= 2014 | volume= 33 | issue= 4 | pages= 215-25 | pmid=24895952 | doi=10.1097/DCC.0000000000000056 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24895952  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24948793">{{cite journal| author=Shoorideh FA, Ashktorab T, Yaghmaei F, Alavi Majd H| title=Relationship between ICU nurses' moral distress with burnout and anticipated turnover. | journal=Nurs Ethics | year= 2015 | volume= 22 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-76 | pmid=24948793 | doi=10.1177/0969733014534874 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24948793  }} </ref>. In a separate study, moral distress correlated with the depersonalization component of burnout and just missed correlation with emotional exhaustion<ref name="pmid28344714">{{cite journal| author=Sajjadi S, Norena M, Wong H, Dodek P| title=Moral distress and burnout in internal medicine residents. | journal=Can Med Educ J | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= e36-e43 | pmid=28344714 | doi= | pmc=5344066 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28344714  }} </ref>.


===Theory and models of antecedents, indicators, and outcomes===
Kahn posed that three key attributes of work are meaningfulness, psychological safety. and availability (availability is related to mastery) <ref name="Kahn1990">{{cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=William A.|title=Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=33|issue=4|year=1990|pages=692–724|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/256287}}</ref> and later validated by May<ref name="MayGilson2004">{{cite journal|last1=May|first1=Douglas R.|last2=Gilson|first2=Richard L.|last3=Harter|first3=Lynn M.|title=The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work|journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology|volume=77|issue=1|year=2004|pages=11–37|issn=09631798|doi=10.1348/096317904322915892}}</ref>
Yerkes-Dodson Law suggestions that the relationship between performance and arousal is bell-shaped so that performance may decrease with excessive arousal. This is similar to work by Csikszentmihaly<ref>Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1991. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. HarperCollins Publishers. {{ISBN|0061876720}}</ref>.
.


The concept of "competence frustration" (versus "flow") suggests a similar bell-shaped relationship between task difficulty and engagement<ref>Fang, H., He, B., Fu, H., & Meng, L. (2017). Being eager to prove oneself: U-shaped relationship between competence frustration and intrinsic motivation in another activity. Frontiers in psychology, 8. {{doi|10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02123 }}</ref>
==Culture and Climate==
Organizational culture is "beliefs and values shared by all members of the organization. These shared values, which are subject to change, are reflected in the day to day management of the organization"<ref>{{MeSH|Organizational culture}}</ref>. Components of culture have been described based on anthropology<ref>Schein, E. H. (1984). [http://www.sietmanagement.fr/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/culture_schein-1.pdf Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture]. Sloan management review, 25(2), 3-16.</ref><ref>Schein, E. H. (1983). [http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a126356.pdf The role of the founder in creating organizational culture]. Organizational dynamics, 12(1), 13-28.</ref><ref>Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). [http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1962-00928-000 Variations in value orientations]. Oxford, England: Row, Peterson.</ref>.


====Self-determination theory====
Organizational culture affects organizational effectiveness<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hartnell|first=CA|title=Supplemental Material for A Meta-Analytic Test of Organizational Culture’s Association With Elements of an Organization’s System and Its Relative Predictive Validity on Organizational Outcomes|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|year=2019|issn=0021-9010|doi=10.1037/apl0000380.supp}}</ref>
[[Image:SelfDeterminationTheory.png|right|400px]]
Self-determination theory was proposed in the early 1980s.<ref>Deci, Edward L., and Richard M. Ryan. "Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behavior." The Journal of Mind and Behavior (1980): 33-43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43852807</ref> In this theory, autonomy, mastery, and purpose have been validated as components<ref>Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 26(4), 419-435. {{doi|10.1177/0146167200266002}}</ref><ref>Broeck A, Vansteenkiste M, Witte H, Soenens B, Lens W. Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work‐related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 2010 Dec 1;83(4):981-1002. {{doi|10.1348/096317909X481382}}</ref>.


===Culture and Climate===
Employee involvement climate, defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization" is associated with thriving among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional<ref name="doi:10.1177/0149206313506462">Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. {{doi|10.1177/0149206313506462}}</ref>.
Employee involvement climate, defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in
order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization" is associated with thriving among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional<ref name="doi:10.1177/0149206313506462">Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. {{doi|10.1177/0149206313506462}}</ref>.


The role of work climate has been examined in studies based on [[complexity science]]<ref name="pmid27118664">{{cite journal| author=Massoud MR, Barry D, Murphy A, Albrecht Y, Sax S, Parchman M| title=How do we learn about improving health care: a call for a new epistemological paradigm. | journal=Int J Qual Health Care | year= 2016 | volume= 28 | issue= 3 | pages= 420-4 | pmid=27118664 | doi=10.1093/intqhc/mzw039 | pmc=4931911 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27118664  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20367840">{{cite journal| author=Jordon M, Lanham HJ, Anderson RA, McDaniel RR| title=Implications of complex adaptive systems theory for interpreting research about health care organizations. | journal=J Eval Clin Pract | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 228-31 | pmid=20367840 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01359.x | pmc=3667707 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20367840  }} </ref>, in order to predict why [[quality improvement]] projects succeed<ref name="pmid17725834">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Pugh J, Lawrence V, Parchman M, Noël PH, Cornell J et al.| title=Organizational interventions employing principles of complexity science have improved outcomes for patients with Type II diabetes. | journal=Implement Sci | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue=  | pages= 28 | pmid=17725834 | doi=10.1186/1748-5908-2-28 | pmc=2018702 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17725834  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20735859">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Parchman M, Pugh J, Lawrence V, Noël PH, McDaniel RR| title=The importance of organizational characteristics for improving outcomes in patients with chronic disease: a systematic review of congestive heart failure. | journal=Implement Sci | year= 2010 | volume= 5 | issue=  | pages= 66 | pmid=20735859 | doi=10.1186/1748-5908-5-66 | pmc=2936445 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20735859  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22819737">{{cite journal| author=Lanham HJ, Leykum LK, Taylor BS, McCannon CJ, Lindberg C, Lester RT| title=How complexity science can inform scale-up and spread in health care: understanding the role of self-organization in variation across local contexts. | journal=Soc Sci Med | year= 2013 | volume= 93 | issue=  | pages= 194-202 | pmid=22819737 | doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.05.040 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22819737  }} </ref> and fail<ref name="pmid22186171">{{cite journal| author=Arar NH, Noel PH, Leykum L, Zeber JE, Romero R, Parchman ML| title=Implementing quality improvement in small, autonomous primary care practices: implications for the patient-centred medical home. | journal=Qual Prim Care | year= 2011 | volume= 19 | issue= 5 | pages= 289-300 | pmid=22186171 | doi= | pmc=3313551 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22186171  }} </ref>.
The role of work climate has been examined in studies based on [[complexity science]]<ref name="pmid27118664">{{cite journal| author=Massoud MR, Barry D, Murphy A, Albrecht Y, Sax S, Parchman M| title=How do we learn about improving health care: a call for a new epistemological paradigm. | journal=Int J Qual Health Care | year= 2016 | volume= 28 | issue= 3 | pages= 420-4 | pmid=27118664 | doi=10.1093/intqhc/mzw039 | pmc=4931911 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27118664  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20367840">{{cite journal| author=Jordon M, Lanham HJ, Anderson RA, McDaniel RR| title=Implications of complex adaptive systems theory for interpreting research about health care organizations. | journal=J Eval Clin Pract | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 228-31 | pmid=20367840 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01359.x | pmc=3667707 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20367840  }} </ref>, in order to predict why [[quality improvement]] projects succeed<ref name="pmid17725834">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Pugh J, Lawrence V, Parchman M, Noël PH, Cornell J et al.| title=Organizational interventions employing principles of complexity science have improved outcomes for patients with Type II diabetes. | journal=Implement Sci | year= 2007 | volume= 2 | issue=  | pages= 28 | pmid=17725834 | doi=10.1186/1748-5908-2-28 | pmc=2018702 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17725834  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20735859">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Parchman M, Pugh J, Lawrence V, Noël PH, McDaniel RR| title=The importance of organizational characteristics for improving outcomes in patients with chronic disease: a systematic review of congestive heart failure. | journal=Implement Sci | year= 2010 | volume= 5 | issue=  | pages= 66 | pmid=20735859 | doi=10.1186/1748-5908-5-66 | pmc=2936445 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20735859  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22819737">{{cite journal| author=Lanham HJ, Leykum LK, Taylor BS, McCannon CJ, Lindberg C, Lester RT| title=How complexity science can inform scale-up and spread in health care: understanding the role of self-organization in variation across local contexts. | journal=Soc Sci Med | year= 2013 | volume= 93 | issue=  | pages= 194-202 | pmid=22819737 | doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.05.040 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22819737  }} </ref> and fail<ref name="pmid22186171">{{cite journal| author=Arar NH, Noel PH, Leykum L, Zeber JE, Romero R, Parchman ML| title=Implementing quality improvement in small, autonomous primary care practices: implications for the patient-centred medical home. | journal=Qual Prim Care | year= 2011 | volume= 19 | issue= 5 | pages= 289-300 | pmid=22186171 | doi= | pmc=3313551 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22186171  }} </ref>.
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A reciprocal, beneficial relationship has been proposed between a positive work climate and mission goals<ref>Physician Well-Being: [http://catalyst.nejm.org/physician-well-being-efficiency-wellness-resilience/ The Reciprocity of Practice Efficiency, Culture of Wellness, and Personal Resilience]. 2017</ref>. This may be similar the [[Matthew effect]]<ref>Rigney, Daniel. [http://www.jstor.org.proxy.kumc.edu:2048/stable/10.7312/rign14948 The Matthew effect: How advantage begets further advantage]. Columbia University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|9780231520409}}</ref>.
A reciprocal, beneficial relationship has been proposed between a positive work climate and mission goals<ref>Physician Well-Being: [http://catalyst.nejm.org/physician-well-being-efficiency-wellness-resilience/ The Reciprocity of Practice Efficiency, Culture of Wellness, and Personal Resilience]. 2017</ref>. This may be similar the [[Matthew effect]]<ref>Rigney, Daniel. [http://www.jstor.org.proxy.kumc.edu:2048/stable/10.7312/rign14948 The Matthew effect: How advantage begets further advantage]. Columbia University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|9780231520409}}</ref>.


===Interventions to promote positive organizational psychology===
==Outcomes of positive organizational psychology==
Available studies have been reviewed.<ref name="Meyers van Woerkom Bakker 2013 pp. 618–632">{{cite journal | last=Meyers | first=M. Christina | last2=van Woerkom | first2=Marianne | last3=Bakker | first3=Arnold B. | title=The added value of the positive: A literature review of positive psychology interventions in organizations | journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=22 | issue=5 | year=2013 | issn=1359-432X | doi=10.1080/1359432x.2012.694689 | pages=618–632}}</ref> Studies using appreciative inquiry have been done.<ref name="pmid21192206">{{cite journal| author=Ruhe MC, Bobiak SN, Litaker D, Carter CA, Wu L, Schroeder C et al.| title=Appreciative Inquiry for quality improvement in primary care practices. | journal=Qual Manag Health Care | year= 2011 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 37-48 | pmid=21192206 | doi=10.1097/QMH.0b013e31820311be | pmc=4222905 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21192206  }} </ref><ref name="Peelle 2006 pp. 447–467">{{cite journal | last=Peelle | first=Henry E. | title=Appreciative Inquiry and Creative Problem Solving in Cross-Functional Teams | journal=The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=42 | issue=4 | year=2006 | issn=0021-8863 | doi=10.1177/0021886306292479 | pages=447–467}}</ref>
A [[systematic review]] reported that most studies found benefit on outcomes of health care organizations that have positive organizational psychology<ref name="pmid29122796">{{cite journal| author=Braithwaite J, Herkes J, Ludlow K, Testa L, Lamprell G| title=Association between organisational and workplace cultures, and patient outcomes: systematic review. | journal=BMJ Open | year= 2017 | volume= 7 | issue= 11 | pages= e017708 | pmid=29122796 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2017-017708 | pmc=5695304 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29122796  }} </ref>.
 
===Outcomes of engagement===
====Benefits====
Engagement may be more important than job satisfaction of intrinsic motivation in predicting job performance<ref name="RichLepine2010">{{cite journal|last1=Rich|first1=Bruce Louis|last2=Lepine|first2=Jeffrey A.|last3=Crawford|first3=Eean R.|title=Job Engagement: Antecedents and Effects on Job Performance|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=53|issue=3|year=2010|pages=617–635|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2010.51468988}}</ref>.
 
Engagement is associated with organizational success<ref>Schneider, B., Yost, A. B., Kropp, A., Kind, C., & Lam, H. (2017). Workforce engagement: What it is, what drives it, and why it matters for organizational performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior. {{{doi|10.1002/job.2244}}</ref><ref>Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). [http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2002-12397-006 Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis]. Journal of applied psychology, 87(2), 268.</ref>, including in health care<ref name="pmid26086062">{{cite journal| author=Bailey C, Madden A, Alfes K, Fletcher L, Robinson D, Holmes J et al.| title=Evaluating the evidence on employee engagement and its potential benefits to NHS staff: a narrative synthesis of the literature | journal=Health Services and Delivery Research | year= 2015 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=26086062 | doi=10.3310/hsdr03260 | pmc= | url= }} </ref>.
 
Innovation and curiosity.<ref name="LievensHarrisonMussel2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Lievens | first1 = Filip | last2 = Harrison | first2 = Spencer H. | last3 = Mussel | first3 = Patrick | last4 = Litman | first4 = Jordan A. | title = Killing The Cat? A Review of Curiosity at Work | journal = Academy of Management Annals | date = January 2022 | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 179–216 | issn = 1941-6520 | eissn = 1941-6067 | doi = 10.5465/annals.2020.0203 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>
 
=====Job crafting and proactive and prosocial behavior=====
Prosocial behavior may occur<ref name="BriefMotowidlo1986">{{cite journal | last1 = Brief | first1 = Arthur P. | last2 = Motowidlo | first2 = Stephan J. | title = Prosocial Organizational Behaviors | journal = Academy of Management Review | date = October 1986 | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 710–725 | issn = 0363-7425 | eissn = 1930-3807 | doi = 10.5465/amr.1986.4283909 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 
Employees may recommend their job to others<ref name="Gross Ingerfurth Willems 2021 pp. 405–413">{{cite journal | last=Gross | first=Hellen P. | last2=Ingerfurth | first2=Stefan | last3=Willems | first3=Jurgen | title=Employees as reputation advocates: Dimensions of employee job satisfaction explaining employees’ recommendation intention | journal=Journal of Business Research | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=134 | year=2021 | issn=0148-2963 | doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.05.021 | pages=405–413}}</ref>. This is a type of prosocial behavior.


Public reporting has been used to try to improve organizational culture.<ref name="Haldane">{{Cite web | title = Productivity puzzles | publisher = Bank of England | author = Haldane, Andrew | work = bankofengland.co.uk | date = March 20, 2017| accessdate = 2017-07-16 | url = http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Pages/speeches/2017/968.aspx | quote = }}</ref><ref name="nhss_2016">{{Cite web | title = 2016 NHS Staff Survey Results | author = Anonymous | publisher = National Health Service | date = | accessdate = 2017-07-17 | url = http://www.nhsstaffsurveyresults.com/ | quote = }}</ref> Recommendations for how to report have been proposed.<ref name="Fox 2007 pp. 663–671">{{cite journal | last=Fox | first=Jonathan | title=The uncertain relationship between transparency and accountability | journal=Development in Practice | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=17 | issue=4-5 | year=2007 | issn=0961-4524 | doi=10.1080/09614520701469955 | pages=663–671}}</ref><ref name="Fox 2015 pp. 346–361">{{cite journal | last=Fox | first=Jonathan A. | title=Social Accountability: What Does the Evidence Really Say? | journal=World Development | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=72 | year=2015 | issn=0305-750X | doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.03.011 | pages=346–361}}</ref>
====Harm====
Engagement has been suggested to be susceptiable to the "Too-Much-of-a-Good-Thing Effect"<ref name="PierceAguinis2011">{{cite journal|last1=Pierce|first1=Jason R.|last2=Aguinis|first2=Herman|title=The Too-Much-of-a-Good-Thing Effect in Management|journal=Journal of Management|volume=39|issue=2|year=2011|pages=313–338|issn=0149-2063|doi=10.1177/0149206311410060}}</ref><ref name="GrantSchwartz2011">{{cite journal|last1=Grant|first1=Adam M.|last2=Schwartz|first2=Barry|title=Too Much of a Good Thing|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|volume=6|issue=1|year=2011|pages=61–76|issn=1745-6916|doi=10.1177/1745691610393523}}</ref>. n addition, high engagement has been associated with:
* Harm in family life<ref name="HalbeslebenHarvey2009">{{cite journal|last1=Halbesleben|first1=Jonathon R. B.|last2=Harvey|first2=Jaron|last3=Bolino|first3=Mark C.|title=Too engaged? A conservation of resources view of the relationship between work engagement and work interference with family.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=94|issue=6|year=2009|pages=1452–1465|issn=1939-1854|doi=10.1037/a0017595}}</ref>.


Switching to a flatter organizational structure may help<ref>Owen, D. C., Boswell, C., Opton, L., Franco, L., & Meriwether, C. (2018). Engagement, empowerment, and job satisfaction before implementing an academic model of shared governance. Applied Nursing Research. {{doi|10.1016/j.apnr.2018.02.001}}</ref>.
If harm occurs from too much engagement:
* ''Short-term and long-term effects may different.'' In a two-wave panel study, short-term adverse effects were found for high levels of engagement, but no adverse effects were found for long-term engagement<ref name="pmid30586369">{{cite journal| author=Shimazu A, Schaufeli WB, Kubota K, Watanabe K, Kawakami N| title=Is too much work engagement detrimental? Linear or curvilinear effects on mental health and job performance. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2018 | volume= 13 | issue= 12 | pages= e0208684 | pmid=30586369 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0208684 | pmc=6306155 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30586369  }} </ref>
* Absorption may be associated with more harm outside of work than the other dimensions of engagement<ref name="CarseGriffin2017">{{cite journal|last1=Carse|first1=Traci|last2=Griffin|first2=Barbara|last3=Lyons|first3=Mathew|title=The Dark Side of Engagement for Older Workers|journal=Journal of Personnel Psychology|volume=16|issue=4|year=2017|pages=161–171|issn=1866-5888|doi=10.1027/1866-5888/a000173}}</ref>
* The effect may be curvilinear<ref name="BouckenoogheDe Clercq2021">{{cite journal|last1=Bouckenooghe|first1=Dave|last2=De Clercq|first2=Dirk|last3=Naseer|first3=Saima|last4=Syed|first4=Fauzia|title=A Curvilinear Relationship Between Work Engagement and Job Performance: the Roles of Feedback-Seeking Behavior and Personal Resources|journal=Journal of Business and Psychology|year=2021|issn=0889-3268|doi=10.1007/s10869-021-09750-7}}</ref><ref name="pmid30586369">{{cite journal| author=Shimazu A, Schaufeli WB, Kubota K, Watanabe K, Kawakami N| title=Is too much work engagement detrimental? Linear or curvilinear effects on mental health and job performance. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2018 | volume= 13 | issue= 12 | pages= e0208684 | pmid=30586369 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0208684 | pmc=6306155 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30586369  }} </ref>.
* May interact with workaholism<ref name="J. GorgievskiAntonio Moriano2014">{{cite journal|last1=J. Gorgievski|first1=Marjan|last2=Antonio Moriano|first2=Juan|last3=B. Bakker|first3=Arnold|title=Relating work engagement and workaholism to entrepreneurial performance|journal=Journal of Managerial Psychology|volume=29|issue=2|year=2014|pages=106–121|issn=0268-3946|doi=10.1108/JMP-06-2012-0169}}</ref>. However, this may mainly occur through absorption<ref name="Di StefanoGaudiino2019">{{cite journal|last1=Di Stefano|first1=Giovanni|last2=Gaudiino|first2=Maria|title=Workaholism and work engagement: how are they similar? How are they different? A systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology|volume=28|issue=3|year=2019|pages=329–347|issn=1359-432X|doi=10.1080/1359432X.2019.1590337}}</ref>


In the U.K. National Health Service, the Boorman report makes 20 recommendations<re>[https://www.nhsemployers.org/your-workforce/retain-and-improve/staff-experience/health-and-wellbeing/the-way-to-health-and-wellbeing/boorman-recommendations Boorman recommendations]. NHS Employers</ref> Subsequent [[systemic review]] of interventions incorporating these recommendations has found benefit on the workforce<ref name="pmid29200422">{{cite journal| author=Brand SL, Thompson Coon J, Fleming LE, Carroll L, Bethel A, Wyatt K| title=Whole-system approaches to improving the health and wellbeing of healthcare workers: A systematic review. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2017 | volume= 12 | issue= 12 | pages= e0188418 | pmid=29200422 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0188418 | pmc=5714334 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29200422  }} </ref>.
In summary, harm from high levels of engagement may be focused on absorption and may only be short-term.


==Leadership==
==Leadership==
{{main|Leadership}}
{{main|Leadership}}


==Best practices==
The distinction between management has become blurred<ref name="AlvessonBlom2020">{{cite journal|last1=Alvesson|first1=Mats|last2=Blom|first2=Martin|title=EXPRESS: The Hegemonic Ambiguity of Big Concepts in Organization Studies|journal=Human Relations|year=2020|pages=001872672098684|issn=0018-7267|doi=10.1177/0018726720986847}}</ref>.
 
==Interventions to promote positive organizational psychology==
Available studies have been reviewed.<ref name="Meyers van Woerkom Bakker 2013 pp. 618–632">{{cite journal | last=Meyers | first=M. Christina | last2=van Woerkom | first2=Marianne | last3=Bakker | first3=Arnold B. | title=The added value of the positive: A literature review of positive psychology interventions in organizations | journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=22 | issue=5 | year=2013 | issn=1359-432X | doi=10.1080/1359432x.2012.694689 | pages=618–632}}</ref> Studies using appreciative inquiry have been done.<ref name="pmid21192206">{{cite journal| author=Ruhe MC, Bobiak SN, Litaker D, Carter CA, Wu L, Schroeder C et al.| title=Appreciative Inquiry for quality improvement in primary care practices. | journal=Qual Manag Health Care | year= 2011 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 37-48 | pmid=21192206 | doi=10.1097/QMH.0b013e31820311be | pmc=4222905 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21192206  }} </ref><ref name="Peelle 2006 pp. 447–467">{{cite journal | last=Peelle | first=Henry E. | title=Appreciative Inquiry and Creative Problem Solving in Cross-Functional Teams | journal=The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=42 | issue=4 | year=2006 | issn=0021-8863 | doi=10.1177/0021886306292479 | pages=447–467}}</ref>
 
Switching to a flatter organizational structure may help<ref>Owen, D. C., Boswell, C., Opton, L., Franco, L., & Meriwether, C. (2018). Engagement, empowerment, and job satisfaction before implementing an academic model of shared governance. Applied Nursing Research. {{doi|10.1016/j.apnr.2018.02.001}}</ref>.
 
In the U.K. National Health Service, the Boorman report makes 20 recommendations<ref>[https://www.nhsemployers.org/your-workforce/retain-and-improve/staff-experience/health-and-wellbeing/the-way-to-health-and-wellbeing/boorman-recommendations Boorman recommendations]. NHS Employers</ref> Subsequent [[systemic review]] of interventions incorporating these recommendations has found benefit on the workforce<ref name="pmid29200422">{{cite journal| author=Brand SL, Thompson Coon J, Fleming LE, Carroll L, Bethel A, Wyatt K| title=Whole-system approaches to improving the health and wellbeing of healthcare workers: A systematic review. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2017 | volume= 12 | issue= 12 | pages= e0188418 | pmid=29200422 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0188418 | pmc=5714334 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29200422  }} </ref>.
 
Gamification may help<ref name="JingNiyomsilp2021">{{cite journal|last1=Jing|first1=Jie|last2=Niyomsilp|first2=Eksiri|last3=Li|first3=Rong|last4=Gao|first4=Fang|title=Effect of Workplace Fun on Chinese Nurse Innovative Behavior: The Intermediary Function of Affective Commitment|journal=Journal of Nursing Management|year=2021|issn=0966-0429|doi=10.1111/jonm.13387}}</ref>.
 
===Best practices===
In medicine, recommendations for high-performance work systems are available and include<ref name="pmid21646880">{{cite journal| author=Garman AN, McAlearney AS, Harrison MI, Song PH, McHugh M| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 1: development of an evidence-informed model. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 201-13 | pmid=21646880 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646880  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21646881">{{cite journal| author=McAlearney AS, Garman AN, Song PH, McHugh M, Robbins J, Harrison MI| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 2: qualitative evidence from five case studies. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 214-26 | pmid=21646881 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646881  }} </ref>:
In medicine, recommendations for high-performance work systems are available and include<ref name="pmid21646880">{{cite journal| author=Garman AN, McAlearney AS, Harrison MI, Song PH, McHugh M| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 1: development of an evidence-informed model. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 201-13 | pmid=21646880 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646880  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21646881">{{cite journal| author=McAlearney AS, Garman AN, Song PH, McHugh M, Robbins J, Harrison MI| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 2: qualitative evidence from five case studies. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 214-26 | pmid=21646881 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646881  }} </ref>:
* '''Engaging staff'''
* '''Engaging staff'''
* '''Acquiring and developing talent'''
* '''Empowering the frontline'''. However, empowering one segment of the frontline may result in bordering another segment<ref name="pmid31405871">{{cite journal| author=Grumbach K, Knox M, Huang B, Hammer H, Kivlahan C, Willard-Grace R| title=A Longitudinal Study of Trends in Burnout During Primary Care Transformation. | journal=Ann Fam Med | year= 2019 | volume= 17 | issue= Suppl 1 | pages= S9-S16 | pmid=31405871 | doi=10.1370/afm.2406 | pmc=6827663 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31405871  }} </ref>.
* '''Aligning leaders'''
* Employee and Organizational outcomes
=== Emerging, new ideas ===
Unionization may be able help physicians in training<ref name="LinGePal2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Lin | first1 = Grant L. | last2 = Ge | first2 = T. Jessie | last3 = Pal | first3 = Ria | title = Resident and Fellow Unions | journal = JAMA | date = 28 July 2022 | issn = 0098-7484 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2022.12838 | pmid = 35900751 | url = }}</ref>.
====Surveys to solicit employee feedback====
Serial surveying of employee opinion may be effective<ref>Neuman, G. A., Edwards, J. E., & Raju, N. S. (1989). Organizational development interventions: A meta‐analysis of their effects on satisfaction and other attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 42(3), 461-489.{{doi|10.1111/j.1744-6570.1989.tb00665.x}}</ref><ref>Conlon, E. J., & Short, L. O. (1984). Survey feedback as a large-scale change device: An empirical examination. Group & Organization Studies, 9(3), 399-416. {{doi|10.1177/105960118400900306}}</ref>. However, action in response to feedback is needed<ref name="ChurchGolay2012">{{cite journal|last1=Church|first1=Allan H.|last2=Golay|first2=Leslie M.|last3=Rotolo|first3=Christopher T.|last4=Tuller|first4=Michael D.|last5=Shull|first5=Amanda C.|last6=Desrosiers|first6=Erica I.|title=Without Effort there can be no Change: Reexamining the Impact of Survey Feedback and Action Planning on Employee Attitudes|volume=20|year=2012|pages=223–264|issn=0897-3016|doi=10.1108/S0897-3016(2012)0000020010}}</ref>. Thus, selective action may cause feedback to create a [[Matthew effect]] as leaders who are already successful may be disposed to act on the feedback<ref name="BornMathieu2016">{{cite journal|last1=Born|first1=Dana H.|last2=Mathieu|first2=John E.|title=Differential Effects of Survey-Guided Feedback|journal=Group & Organization Management|volume=21|issue=4|year=2016|pages=388–403|issn=1059-6011|doi=10.1177/1059601196214002}}</ref>.
Employees can help guide survey design<ref name="DuganNamazi2021">{{cite journal|last1=Dugan|first1=Alicia G.|last2=Namazi|first2=Sara|last3=Cavallari|first3=Jennifer M.|last4=Rinker|first4=Robert D.|last5=Preston|first5=Julius C.|last6=Steele|first6=Vincent L.|last7=Cherniack|first7=Martin G.|title=Participatory survey design of a workforce health needs assessment for correctional supervisors|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|year=2021|issn=0271-3586|doi=10.1002/ajim.23225}}</ref>.
Many surveys are available<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1007/s11606-020-06262-7| issn = 1525-1497| volume = 36| issue = 2| pages = 487–499| last1 = Hsiung| first1 = Kimberly S.| last2 = Colditz| first2 = Jason B.| last3 = McGuier| first3 = Elizabeth A.| last4 = Switzer| first4 = Galen E.| last5 = VonVille| first5 = Helena M.| last6 = Folb| first6 = Barbara L.| last7 = Kolko| first7 = David J.| title = Measures of Organizational Culture and Climate in Primary Care: a Systematic Review| journal = Journal of General Internal Medicine| accessdate = 2021-02-13| date = 2021-02-01| url = https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06262-7}}</ref><ref name="pmid27871627">{{cite journal| author=Shanafelt TD, Noseworthy JH| title=Executive Leadership and Physician Well-being: Nine Organizational Strategies to Promote Engagement and Reduce Burnout. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2017 | volume= 92 | issue= 1 | pages= 129-146 | pmid=27871627 | doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.10.004 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27871627  }} </ref>.
====NHS Staff  Surveys====
The [http://www.nhsstaffsurveyresults.com/ NHS Staff Surveys] have been administered since 2003 in England. In Scottland, the NHS-Scottland also fields surveys<ref>https://www.staffgovernance.scot.nhs.uk/monitoring-employee-experience/</ref> .
=====Contents=====
======Workforce states======
[[Burnout_(psychology)|Burnout]] is ''not'' measured with Maslach's survey<ref name="pmid25987150">{{cite journal| author=Orton P, Gray DP| title=Burnout in NHS staff. | journal=Lancet | year= 2015 | volume= 385 | issue= 9980 | pages= 1831 | pmid=25987150 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60921-7 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25987150  }} </ref>. A proxy question for the emotional exhaustion component is available:
* "During the last 12 months have you felt unwell as a result of work related stress."
[[Job satisfaction]] is ''not'' measured directly, but a proxy question is available:
* "I would recommend my organisation as a place to work."
Engagement, using three items from the UWES-9<ref name="SchaufeliBakker2016">{{cite journal|last1=Schaufeli|first1=Wilmar B.|last2=Bakker|first2=Arnold B.|last3=Salanova|first3=Marisa|title=The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire|journal=Educational and Psychological Measurement|volume=66|issue=4|year=2016|pages=701–716|issn=0013-1644|doi=10.1177/0013164405282471}}</ref>, has been measured since 2012:
* Vigor/vitality: "I look forward to going to work."
* Dedication: "I am enthusiastic about my job."
* Absorption: "Time passes quickly when I am working."
Thriving is ''not'' available although a validated scale is available<ref name="Porath Spreitzer Gibson Garnett pp. 250–275">{{cite journal | last=Porath | first=Christine | last2=Spreitzer | first2=Gretchen | last3=Gibson | first3=Cristina | last4=Garnett | first4=Flannery G. | title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement | journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | volume=33 | issue=2 | date=2011-05-19 | issn=0894-3796 | doi=10.1002/job.756 | pages=250–275}}</ref>. The Staff Surveys has one related question:
* "The team I work in often meets to discuss the team’s effectiveness."
======Leadership tactics======
{{Main|Leadership}}
Empowerment, using questions similar to Spreitzer's Measuring Empowerment survey which measures<ref name="Spreitzer1995">{{cite journal|last1=Spreitzer|first1=Gretchen M.|title=Psychological Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=38|issue=5|year=1995|pages=1442–1465|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/256865}}</ref>:
* Meaningfulness or purpose
** Not directly asked. Related question is "The opportunities I have to use my skills."
* Competence or efficacy
** "I am able to do my job to a standard I am personally pleased with."
* Self-determination
** "I have a choice in deciding how to do my work."
** "There are frequent opportunities for me to show initiative in my role."
* Impact
** "I am able to make improvements happen in my area of work." and other, similar questions
Complexity leadership theory is partly measured although not using validated items from scales for complexity leadership theory (information gathering and information using)<ref name="Haze,Pottras.2018">Hazy, J. K., & Prottas, D. J. (2018). [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-558229912/complexity-leadership-construct-validation-of-an Complexity Leadership: Construct Validation of an Instrument to Assess Generative and Administrative Leadership Modes]. Journal of Managerial Issues, 30(3), 325.</ref><ref name="Hazy,Prottas.2017">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.5465/AMBPP.2017.11352abstract| issn = 0065-0668| volume = 2017| issue = 1| pages = 11352| last1 = Hazy| first1 = Jim| last2 = Prottas| first2 = David| title = How Complexity Leadership Enables Both Organizational Efficacy and Resilience| journal = Academy of Management Proceedings| accessdate = 2019-03-03| date = 2017-08-01| url = https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/AMBPP.2017.11352abstract}}</ref> and validated items from reciprocal learning<ref name="pmid21345225">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Palmer R, Lanham H, Jordan M, McDaniel RR, Noël PH et al.| title=Reciprocal learning and chronic care model implementation in primary care: results from a new scale of learning in primary care. | journal=BMC Health Serv Res | year= 2011 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 44 | pmid=21345225 | doi=10.1186/1472-6963-11-44 | pmc=3050698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21345225  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22310483">{{cite journal| author=Noël PH, Lanham HJ, Palmer RF, Leykum LK, Parchman ML| title=The importance of relational coordination and reciprocal learning for chronic illness care within primary care teams. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2013 | volume= 38 | issue= 1 | pages= 20-8 | pmid=22310483 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e3182497262 | pmc=3383880 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22310483  }} </ref><ref name="pmid31573363">{{cite journal| author=Jones SMW, Parchman M, McDonald S, Cromp D, Austin B, Flinter M | display-authors=etal| title=Measuring attributes of team functioning in primary care settings: development of the TEAMS tool. | journal=J Interprof Care | year= 2019 | volume=  | issue=  | pages= 1-7 | pmid=31573363 | doi=10.1080/13561820.2019.1670628 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31573363  }} </ref> and Relational Coordination Scale<ref name="pmid22310483">{{cite journal| author=Noël PH, Lanham HJ, Palmer RF, Leykum LK, Parchman ML| title=The importance of relational coordination and reciprocal learning for chronic illness care within primary care teams. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2013 | volume= 38 | issue= 1 | pages= 20-8 | pmid=22310483 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e3182497262 | pmc=3383880 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22310483  }} </ref>.
* Generative (information gathering)
** "Is patient / service user experience feedback collected within your directorate / department?"
** "I receive regular updates on patient / service user experience feedback in my directorate / department"
*Administrative (information using)
** "The team I work in often meets to discuss the team’s effectiveness."
** "When errors, near misses or incidents are reported, my organisation takes action to ensure that they do not happen again."
** "Feedback from patients / service users is used to make informed decisions within my directorate / department"
** "I am confident that my organisation would address my concern" and similar questions
====Public reporting and reporting of workforce state to external stakeholders====
{{See also|Burnout (psychology)}}
This may include public reporting.
Public reporting has been used to try to improve organizational culture.<ref name="Haldane">{{Cite web | title = Productivity puzzles | publisher = Bank of England | author = Haldane, Andrew | work = bankofengland.co.uk | date = March 20, 2017| accessdate = 2017-07-16 | url = https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/speech/2017/productivity-puzzles | quote = }}</ref><ref name="nhss_2016">{{Cite web | title = 2016 NHS Staff Survey Results | author = Anonymous | publisher = National Health Service | date = | accessdate = 2017-07-17 | url = http://www.nhsstaffsurveyresults.com/ | quote = }}</ref> Recommendations for how to report have been proposed.<ref name="Fox 2007 pp. 663–671">{{cite journal | last=Fox | first=Jonathan | title=The uncertain relationship between transparency and accountability | journal=Development in Practice | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=17 | issue=4-5 | year=2007 | issn=0961-4524 | doi=10.1080/09614520701469955 | pages=663–671}}</ref><ref name="Fox 2015 pp. 346–361">{{cite journal | last=Fox | first=Jonathan A. | title=Social Accountability: What Does the Evidence Really Say? | journal=World Development | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=72 | year=2015 | issn=0305-750X | doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.03.011 | pages=346–361}}</ref>
======Environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG)======
Environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) was defined in 2004 by U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0017-8012| last = Firestone| first = Karen| title = How Investors Have Reacted to the Business Roundtable Statement| work = Harvard Business Review| accessdate = 2019-11-21| date = 2019-11-20| url = https://hbr.org/2019/11/how-investors-have-reacted-to-the-business-roundtable-statement}}</ref>. The "'''S'''" includes workforce.
The organizations CDP, CDSB, GRI, IIRC and SASB may start collaborating iva the Impact Management Project of the World Economic Forum and Deloitte<ref>Statement of Intent to
Work Together Towards Comprehensive Corporate ReportingAvailale at: https://29kjwb3armds2g3gi4lq2sx1-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/Statement-of-Intent-to-Work-Together-Towards-Comprehensive-Corporate-Reporting.pdf</ref>
Another collaboration is the recent creation of the [[https://www.ifrs.org/groups/international-sustainability-standards-board/ International Sustainability Standards Board]] (ISSB) within the [https://www.ifrs.org/ IFRS Foundation]<ref>Eccles RG, Mirchandani B (2022). We Need Universal ESG Accounting Standards. The Harvard Business Review. Available at https://hbr.org/2022/02/we-need-universal-esg-accounting-standards</ref>.
Groups striving to implement these goals:
* United Nations: https://www.unpri.org/esg-issues/social-issues/employee-relations and https://www.unepfi.org/social-issues/social-issues/
* [https://www.globalreporting.org/ Global Reporting Initiative] recommendations include reporting on:
** "Healthcare providers, including hospitals, nursing homes and home health care need to report on staffing ratios per patient and their turn-over rates"
* Global Sustainable Investment Alliance (GSIA): http://www.gsi-alliance.org/ including https://www.ussif.org/ in the U.S.
* International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC): https://integratedreporting.org/
* International Standards Organization (ISO) Technical Committee on Healthcare organization management: https://www.iso.org/committee/6131376.html
* Motley Fool's [https://www.fool.com/investing/2019/04/09/going-for-great-returns-and-the-greater-good-fools.aspx Going for Great Returns and the Greater Good: The Motley Fool's ESG Investing Framework]
* Workforce Disclosure Initiative (https://shareaction.org/wdi/) of ShareAction which has had successes described in the Wall Street Journal<ref name="Sardon2019">{{Cite news| issn = 0099-9660| last = Sardon| first = Maitane| title = The Potentially High Cost of Not Disclosing ESG Data| work = Wall Street Journal| accessdate = 2020-04-23| date = 2019-09-23| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-potentially-high-cost-of-not-disclosing-esg-data-11569204241}}</ref>
* Business Roundtable: https://opportunity.businessroundtable.org/ourcommitment/ Although the Business Roundtable's recent [https://opportunity.businessroundtable.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/BRT-Statement-on-the-Purpose-of-a-Corporation-with-Signatures.pdf Statement on the Purpose of a Corporation] has a section, "Investing in our employees" which includes a statement, "We foster diversity and inclusion, dignity and respect", there is not a specific statement on employee well-being.
* Impact-Weighted Accounts Project at Harvard Business School: https://www.hbs.edu/impact-weighted-accounts/
* MSCI Inc. (formerly Morgan Stanley Capital International) licenses [https://www.msci.com/esg-indexes indices] to investors to measure ESG efforts of companies.
* Sustainability Accounting Standards Board: https://www.sasb.org/ includes metrics for:
** "(1) Voluntary and (2) involuntary turnover rate for: (a) physicians, (b) non-physician health care practitioners, and (c) all other employees"
The IIRC and SASB merged in 2021 to form the Value Reporting Foundation<ref>Value Reporting Foundation (2021). IRC and SASB form the Value Reporting Foundation, providing comprehensive suite of tools to assess, manage and communicate value. Available at https://www.valuereportingfoundation.org/news/iirc-and-sasb-form-the-value-reportingfoundation-providing-comprehensive-suite-oftools-to-assess-manage-and-communicate-value/?</ref>.
ESG ratings, when not conflicting, predict future ESG activity<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2139/ssrn.3765217| issn = 1556-5068| last1 = Serafeim| first1 = George| last2 = Yoon| first2 = Aaron| title = Stock Price Reactions to ESG News: The Role of ESG Ratings and Disagreement| journal = SSRN Electronic Journal| accessdate = 2021-03-11| date = 2021| url = https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=3765217}}</ref>.
Concerns have been made about the need to improve the quality of reporting to increase impact<ref>Porter ME, Serafeim G, Kramer M (2019). Where ESG Fails. Institutional Investor. Available at: https://www.institutionalinvestor.com/article/b1hm5ghqtxj9s7/Where-ESG-Fails</ref><ref>Kramer M (2020). Larry Fink Isn’t Going to Read Your Sustainability Report. Harvard Business Review. Available at https://hbr.org/2020/01/larry-fink-isnt-going-to-read-your-sustainability-report</ref>.
'Comply or explain' may be an option for implementing ESG reporting<ref>{{Cite conference| publisher = Social Science Research Network| last1 = Ho| first1 = Harper| last2 = E| first2 = Virginia| title = 'Comply or Explain' and the Future of Nonfinancial Reporting| location = Rochester, NY| accessdate = 2020-04-23| date = 2017-07-15| url = https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2903006}}</ref>.
; Shareholder activism
One lever ESG reporting has is to guide proxy voting on ESG-related shareholder proposals<ref>Cook J (2020). How Fund Families Support ESG-Related Shareholder Proposals. Morningstar. Available at https://www.morningstar.com/insights/2020/02/12/proxy-votes</ref>.
Examples of a shareholder activism have been reported<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = Dooley| first = Ben| title = Ousting Toshiba Chairman, Foreign Investors Score Breakthrough in Japan| work = The New York Times| accessdate = 2021-06-26| date = 2021-06-25| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/25/business/japan-toshiba-chair.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = Aguirre| first = Jessica Camille| title = The Little Hedge Fund Taking Down Big Oil| work = The New York Times| accessdate = 2021-06-26| date = 2021-06-23| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/23/magazine/exxon-mobil-engine-no-1-board.html}}</ref>.
====Human resource management====
Human resource management practices are associated with hospital mortality<ref name="OgbonnayaValizade2016">{{cite journal|last1=Ogbonnaya|first1=Chidiebere|last2=Valizade|first2=Danat|title=High performance work practices, employee outcomes and organizational performance: a 2-1-2 multilevel mediation analysis|journal=The International Journal of Human Resource Management|volume=29|issue=2|year=2016|pages=239–259|issn=0958-5192|doi=10.1080/09585192.2016.1146320}}</ref><ref name="WestGuthrie2006">{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael A.|last2=Guthrie|first2=James P.|last3=Dawson|first3=Jeremy F.|last4=Borrill|first4=Carol S.|last5=Carter|first5=Matthew|title=Reducing patient mortality in hospitals: the role of human resource management|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=27|issue=7|year=2006|pages=983–1002|issn=0894-3796|doi=10.1002/job.396}}</ref>.
Components of Human Resource Management can be divided<ref name="Huselid1995">{{cite journal|last1=Huselid|first1=Mark A.|title=The Impact Of Human Resource Management Practices On Turnover, Productivity, And Corporate Financial Performance|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=38|issue=3|year=1995|pages=635–672|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/256741}}</ref>:
Technical Human Resource Management
* Benefits and services
* Compensation
* Recruiting and training
* Safety and health
* Employee education and training
* Retirement strategies
* Employee/industrial relations
* Social responsibility programs
* EEO for females, minorities, etc.
* Management of labor costs
* Selection testing
* Performance appraisal
* Human resource information systems
* Assessing employee attitudes
Strategic Human Rource Management
* Teamwork
* Employee participation and empowerment
* Workforce planning—flexihitity and deployment
* Workforce productivity and quality of output
* Management and executive development
* Succession and development planning for managers
* Advance issue identification/strategic studies
* Employee and manager communications
* Work/family programs'*
=====High-Performance Work Practices (HPWP)=====
HPWPs, orginally developed by the U.S. Department of Labor<ref>Kling J. U.S. Department of Labor. (1995). High performance work practices and firm performance. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available at https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ504577</ref>, are human resource practices that<ref name="CombsLiu2006">{{cite journal|last1=Combs|first1=James|last2=Liu|first2=Yongmei|last3=Hall|first3=Angela|last4=Ketchen|first4=David|title=How Much Do High-Performance Work Practices Matter? A Meta-Analysis of Their Effects on Organizational Performance|journal=Personnel Psychology |volume=59|issue=3|year=2006|pages=501–528| issn=0031-5826|doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00045.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid21646880">{{cite journal| author=Garman AN, McAlearney AS, Harrison MI, Song PH, McHugh M| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 1: development of an evidence-informed model. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 201-13 | pmid=21646880 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646880  }} </ref>:
* "increase employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs)"
* "empower employees to leverage their KSAs for organizational benefit"
* "increase their motivation to do so"
The following early study of HPWP have been found to affect employee outcomes (turnover and productivity) and measures of corporate financial performance<ref name="Huselid1995">{{cite journal|last1=Huselid|first1=Mark A.|title=The Impact Of Human Resource Management Practices On Turnover, Productivity, And Corporate Financial Performance|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=38|issue=3|year=1995|pages=635–672|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/256741}}</ref>
Employee skills and organizational structures
*What is the proportion of the workforce who are included in a formal information sharing program (e.g.. a newsletter)?
*What is the proportion of the workforce whose job has been subjected to a formal job analysis?
*What proportion of non-entry level jobs have been filled from within in recent years?
*What is the proportion of the workforce who are administered attitude surveys on a regular basis?
*What is the proportion of the workforce who participate in Quality of Work Life (QWL) programs, Quality Circles (QC). and/or labor-management participation teams?
*What is the proportion of the workforce who have access to company incentive plans, profit-sharing plans, and/or gain-sharing plans?
*What is the average number of hours of training received by a typical employee over the last 12 months?
*What is the proportion of the workforce who have access to a formal grievance procedure and/or complaint resolution system?
*What proportion of the workforce is administered an employment tesi prior to hiring?
Employee motivation
*What is the proportion of the workforce whose performance appraisals are used to determine their compensation?
*What proportion of the workforce receives formal performance appraisals?
*Which of the following promotion decision rules do you use most often? (a) merit or performance rating alone; (b) seniority only if merit is equal; (c) seniority among employees who meet a minimum merit requirement; (d) seniority.
*For the five positions that your firm hires most frequently, how many qualified applicants do you have per position (on average)?
=====Assessing employee attitudes (AHRQ)=====
High-Performance Work Practices have been more recently proposed by the United States [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality] (AHRQ)<ref>Appendix 1. Definitions of High-Performance Work Practices. Content last reviewed August 2015. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/quality-patient-safety/cusp/clabsi-hpwpreport/clabsi-hpwpap.html</ref><ref name="pmid21646880">{{cite journal| author=Garman AN, McAlearney AS, Harrison MI, Song PH, McHugh M| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 1: development of an evidence-informed model. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 201-13 | pmid=21646880 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646880  }} </ref>. These include:
Subsystem #1: Engaging Staff
*Conveying mission and vision
*Information sharing
*Employee involvement in decision-making. Defined by the AHRQ as " Practices supporting employees' ability to influence the “decisions that matter” through mechanisms such as quality circles, process project teams, management/town hall meetings, and/or suggestion systems." "2007). Employee surveying and visibly acting on survey results also fit into this practice category."<ref name="pmid21646880">{{cite journal| author=Garman AN, McAlearney AS, Harrison MI, Song PH, McHugh M| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 1: development of an evidence-informed model. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 201-13 | pmid=21646880 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646880  }} </ref>
*Performance-contingent compensation
Subsystem #2: Acquiring and Developing Talent
*Rigorous recruiting
*Selective hiring
*Extensive training
*Career development
Subsystem #3: Empowering the Frontline. Defined by the AHRQ as "These practices most directly affect the ability and motivation of frontline staff, clinicians in particular, to influence the quality and safety their care team provides."
*Employment security
*Reduced  distinctions
*Teams/decentralized decisionmaking
Subsystem #4: Aligning Leaders. Defined by the AHRQ as "These practices influence the capabilities of the organization's leadership in running and evolving the organization as a whole."
*Management training linked to organizational needs. Defined by the AHRQ as "Practices involving the alignment of leadership development resources with the strategic direction of the organization. Examples include use of core competency models and/or incorporation of goals to guide training, assessment, and feedback programs."
*Succession planning
*Performance-contingent compensation
A [[meta-analysis]] in 2006 has shown the effectiveness of HPWPs for five dimensions of organizational performance measures: <ref name="CombsLiu2006">{{cite journal |last1=Combs|first1=James| last2=Liu|first2=Yongmei|last3=Hall|first3=Angela| last4=Ketchen|first4=David| title=HOW MUCH DO HIGH-PERFORMANCE WORK PRACTICES MATTER? A META-ANALYSIS OF THEIR EFFECTS ON ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE|journal=Personnel Psychology|volume=59|issue=3| year=2006|pages=501–528|issn=0031-5826|doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00045.x}}</ref>:


* '''Acquiring and developing talent'''
* productivity
* retention
* accounting returns
* growth
* market returns
 
=====Joint Commission=====
In 2013, the Joint Commission proposed a description of reliability<ref name="pmid24028696">{{cite journal| author=Chassin MR, Loeb JM| title=High-reliability health care: getting there from here. | journal=Milbank Q | year= 2013 | volume= 91 | issue= 3 | pages= 459-90 | pmid=24028696 | doi=10.1111/1468-0009.12023 | pmc=3790522 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24028696  }} </ref>. Their description did not address who orhow decisions are made.
 
=====High-Performance Management System (IHI)=====
More recently in 2016, the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) developed the High-Performance Management System (HPMS)<ref>Scoville R, Little K, Rakover J, Luther K, Mate K. [http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/IHIWhitePapers/Sustaining-Improvement.aspx Sustaining improvement]. IHI White Paper. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Institute for Healthcare Improvement; 2016</ref><ref>https://catalyst.nejm.org/high-performance-management-system/?utm_campaign=Connect%20Weekly&utm_source=hs_email&utm_medium=email&utm_content=70733886&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--gwACIb-sOeM9Z_wc_qIaPCyHr57zTmpujmy1nh59pi7O2dOWYuvrp-k3FaIlSwsP9yi2XBNewt6BmY7z357jlXwqJmg&_hsmi=70733886</ref>. Key components are:
 
'''Primary Driver P1: Drive Quality Control'''
 
* S1: Standardization: Processes exist to help define and disseminate standard work (what to do and how to do it).
* S2: Accountability: A process is in place to review execution of standard work.
* S3: Visual Management: Process performance information is continuously available to synchronize staff attention and guide current activities.
* S4: Problem Solving: Methods are available for surfacing and addressing problems that are solvable at the front line, and for developing improvement capability.
* S5: Escalation: Frontline staff scope issues and escalate those that require management action to resolve.
* S6: Integration: Goals, standard work, and QI project aims are integrated across organizational levels and coordinated among units and departments.
 
'''Primary Driver P2: Manage Quality Improvement'''
* S7: Prioritization: Processes are established to help prioritize frontline improvement projects based on organizational goals.
* S8: Assimilation: Improvement projects are integrated into daily work.
* S9: Implementation: Frontline teams have support to move from QI back to QC, integrating the results of QI projects into standard processes.
 
'''Primary Driver P3: Establish a Culture of High-Performance Management'''
 
* S10: Policy
* S11: Feedback
* S12: Transparency
* S13: Trust
The IHI HPMS does not well map to antecedents of workforce engagement<ref name="Kahn1990">{{cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=W. A.|title=PSYCHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT AND DISENGAGEMENT AT WORK.|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=33|issue=4|year=1990|pages=692–724|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.2307/256287}}</ref><ref name="MaceySchneider2015">{{cite journal|last1=Macey|first1=William H.|last2=Schneider|first2=Benjamin|title=The Meaning of Employee Engagement|journal=Industrial and Organizational Psychology|volume=1|issue=01|year=2015|pages=3–30|issn=1754-9426|doi=10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.0002.x}}</ref>:
 
* Membership and safety
( Availability and mastery
* Meaningfulness
* Autonomy or self-determination
 
=====Evidence of effectiveness=====
Several studies<ref name="WestGuthrie2006">{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael A.|last2=Guthrie|first2=James P.|last3=Dawson|first3=Jeremy F.|last4=Borrill|first4=Carol S.|last5=Carter|first5=Matthew|title=Reducing patient mortality in hospitals: the role of human resource management|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=27|issue=7|year=2006|pages=983–1002|issn=0894-3796|doi=10.1002/job.396}}</ref><ref name="HuselidJackson1997">{{cite journal|last1=Huselid|first1=Mark A.|last2=Jackson|first2=Susan E.|last3=Schuler|first3=Randall S.|title=Technical and Strategic Human Resources Management Effectiveness as Determinants of Firm Performance|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=40|issue=1|year=1997|pages=171–188|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/257025}}</ref> and systematic reviews<ref name="CombsLiu2006">{{cite journal|last1=Combs|first1=James|last2=Liu|first2=Yongmei|last3=Hall|first3=Angela|last4=Ketchen|first4=David|title=How Much Do High-Performance Work Practices Matter? A Meta-Analysis of Their Effects on Organizational Performance|journal=Personnel Psychology |volume=59|issue=3|year=2006|pages=501–528| issn=0031-5826|doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00045.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid18361647">{{cite journal| author=Riketta M| title=The causal relation between job attitudes and performance: a meta-analysis of panel studies. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2008 | volume= 93 | issue= 2 | pages= 472-81 | pmid=18361647 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.472 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18361647  }} </ref> report effectiveness.
 
====Hiring practices====


* '''Empowering the frontline'''
{{See also|Leadership#Selection and development of leaders}}


* '''Aligning leaders'''
===== Gender =====


* Employee and Organizational outcomes
Women may make group decision making more effective<ref name="Woolley Chabris Pentland Hashmi 2010 pp. 686–688">{{cite journal | last=Woolley | first=Anita Williams | last2=Chabris | first2=Christopher F. | last3=Pentland | first3=Alex | last4=Hashmi | first4=Nada | last5=Malone | first5=Thomas W. | title=Evidence for a Collective Intelligence Factor in the Performance of Human Groups | journal=Science | publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) | volume=330 | issue=6004 | date=2010-10-29 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.1193147 | pages=686–688}}</ref> and be inclined to more effective leadership styles<ref name="Eagly Johannesen-Schmidt van Engen 2003 pp. 569–591">{{cite journal | last=Eagly | first=Alice H. | last2=Johannesen-Schmidt | first2=Mary C. | last3=van Engen | first3=Marloes L. | title=Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. | journal=Psychological Bulletin | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=129 | issue=4 | year=2003 | issn=1939-1455 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569 | pages=569–591}}</ref>.


===Surveys to solicit employee feedback===
Opt-out promotion decisions may be effective in promoting gender equality<ref>{{Cite conference| publisher = National Bureau of Economic Research| last1 = He| first1 = Joyce| last2 = Kang| first2 = Sonia| last3 = Lacetera| first3 = Nicola| title = Leaning In or Not Leaning Out? Opt-Out Choice Framing Attenuates Gender Differences in the Decision to Compete| accessdate = 2021-05-23| date = 2019-11-25| url = https://www.nber.org/papers/w26484}}</ref>. Women are less likely to self-promote in their self-assesments<ref name="10.1093/qje/qjac003">{{cite journal | last=Exley | first=Christine L | last2=Kessler | first2=Judd B | title=The Gender Gap in Self-Promotion | journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=137 | issue=3 | date=2022-01-21 | issn=0033-5533 | doi=10.1093/qje/qjac003 | pages=1345–1381}}</ref><ref name="Eckel">Eckel, C., Gangadharan, L., Grossman, P. J., & Xue, N. (2021). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353477230_The_gender_leadership_gap_insights_from_experiments The gender leadership gap: Insights from experiments]. A Research Agenda for Experimental Economics, 137-162.</ref>
Serial surveying of employee opinion may be effective<ref>Neuman, G. A., Edwards, J. E., & Raju, N. S. (1989). Organizational development interventions: A meta‐analysis of their effects on satisfaction and other attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 42(3), 461-489.{{doi|10.1111/j.1744-6570.1989.tb00665.x}}</ref><ref>Conlon, E. J., & Short, L. O. (1984). Survey feedback as a large-scale change device: An empirical examination. Group & Organization Studies, 9(3), 399-416. {{doi|10.1177/105960118400900306}}</ref>. However, action in response to feedback is needed<ref name="ChurchGolay2012">{{cite journal|last1=Church|first1=Allan H.|last2=Golay|first2=Leslie M.|last3=Rotolo|first3=Christopher T.|last4=Tuller|first4=Michael D.|last5=Shull|first5=Amanda C.|last6=Desrosiers|first6=Erica I.|title=Without Effort there can be no Change: Reexamining the Impact of Survey Feedback and Action Planning on Employee Attitudes|volume=20|year=2012|pages=223–264|issn=0897-3016|doi=10.1108/S0897-3016(2012)0000020010}}</ref>. Thus, selective action may cause feedback to create a [[Matthew effect]] as leaders who are already successful may be disposed to act on the feedback<ref name="BornMathieu2016">{{cite journal|last1=Born|first1=Dana H.|last2=Mathieu|first2=John E.|title=Differential Effects of Survey-Guided Feedback|journal=Group & Organization Management|volume=21|issue=4|year=2016|pages=388–403|issn=1059-6011|doi=10.1177/1059601196214002}}</ref>.


===Appreciative inquiry===
Affirmative action or quotas may have mixed effects<ref>{{Cite conference| publisher = Social Science Research Network| last = Avery| first = Mallory| title = A Hidden Cost of Affirmative Action: Muddying Signals about Women’s Ability| location = Rochester, NY| accessdate = 2021-05-23| date = 2021-02-19| url = https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3789282}}</ref>.


Appreciative inquiry was developed in 1987 by Cooperrider and Srivastva<ref>Cooperrider, David L., and Suresh Srivastva. "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1a58/21673c300e26f47517c82ab58c63d10a74cd.pdf APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY IN ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE]." (1987).</ref>
Lean-in training may cause harm by suggesting women are responsible for reducing disparities by changing themselves rather than the system<ref name="KimFitzsimons2018">{{cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Jae Yun|last2=Fitzsimons|first2=Gráinne M.|last3=Kay|first3=Aaron C.|title=Lean in messages increase attributions of women’s responsibility for gender inequality.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=115|issue=6|year=2018|pages=974–1001|issn=1939-1315|doi=10.1037/pspa0000129}}</ref>.
===Positive deviance===


A positive deviance approach has been recommended to identify and disseminate best organizational practices<ref name="pmid15539680">{{cite journal| author=Marsh DR, Schroeder DG, Dearden KA, Sternin J, Sternin M| title=The power of positive deviance. | journal=BMJ | year= 2004 | volume= 329 | issue= 7475 | pages= 1177-9 | pmid=15539680 | doi=10.1136/bmj.329.7475.1177 | pmc=527707 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15539680  }} </ref><ref name="bock">Bock, L. (2015). The Two Tails. In: Work rules!: Insights from inside Google that will transform how you live and lead. Twelve. {{ISBN| 1455554790}}</ref> This approach includes<ref name="pmid15539680"/>:
Diversity training may cause harm<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0017-8012| last1 = Dobbin| first1 = Frank| last2 = Kalev| first2 = Alexandra| title = Why Diversity Programs Fail| work = Harvard Business Review| accessdate = 2021-05-23| date = 2016-07-01| url = https://hbr.org/2016/07/why-diversity-programs-fail}}</ref>.


* "Develop case definitions"
====Teamwork promotion====
* "Identify four to six people who have achieved an unexpected good outcome despite high risk"
Promoting teamwork in healthcare may help address burnout in studies <ref name="pmid36038756">{{cite journal| author=Lu MA, O'Toole J, Shneyderman M, Brockman S, Cumpsty-Fowler C, Dang D | display-authors=etal| title="Where You Feel Like a Family Instead of Co-workers": a Mixed Methods Study on Care Teams and Burnout. | journal=J Gen Intern Med | year= 2022 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=36038756 | doi=10.1007/s11606-022-07756-2 | pmc=9422940 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=36038756  }} </ref><ref name=“ Kjaer2021”>Kjaer K, Kowalsky R, Rubin LA, Willis L, Mital RC, Kazam J, Stracher A. A Grassroots Approach to Protecting Physicians Against Burnout and Building an Engaging Practice Environment [Internet]. NEJM Catalyst. Massachusetts Medical Society; 2021. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/CAT.21.0275</ref>
* "Interview and observe these people to discover uncommon behaviours or enabling factors that could explain the good outcome"
* "Analyse the findings to confirm that the behaviours are uncommon and accessible to those who need to adopt them"
* "Design behaviour change activities to encourage community adoption of the new behaviours"
* "Monitor implementation and evaluate the results"


Reports of successful use have been published<ref name="pmid27349472">{{cite journal| author=Rose AJ, McCullough MB| title=A Practical Guide to Using the Positive Deviance Method in Health Services Research. | journal=Health Serv Res | year= 2017 | volume= 52 | issue= 3 | pages= 1207-1222 | pmid=27349472 | doi=10.1111/1475-6773.12524 | pmc=5441507 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27349472  }} </ref> Specific examples include:
Teamwork might be effective be promoting mastery and membership.
* Reduction in hospital readmission<ref name="pmid29401005">{{cite journal| author=Tanenbaum J, Cebul RD, Votruba M, Einstadter D| title=Association Of A Regional Health Improvement Collaborative With Ambulatory Care-Sensitive Hospitalizations. | journal=Health Aff (Millwood) | year= 2018 | volume= 37 | issue= 2 | pages= 266-274 | pmid=29401005 | doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2017.1209 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29401005  }} </ref>.


* Anticoagulation<ref name="pmid22299722">{{cite journal| author=Rose AJ, Petrakis BA, Callahan P, Mambourg S, Patel D, Hylek EM et al.| title=Organizational characteristics of high- and low-performing anticoagulation clinics in the Veterans Health Administration. | journal=Health Serv Res | year= 2012 | volume= 47 | issue= 4 | pages= 1541-60 | pmid=22299722 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01377.x | pmc=3401398 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22299722  }} </ref>
==Harmful practices==
* Myocardial infarction treatment<ref name="pmid19426507">{{cite journal| author=Bradley EH, Curry LA, Ramanadhan S, Rowe L, Nembhard IM, Krumholz HM| title=Research in action: using positive deviance to improve quality of health care. | journal=Implement Sci | year= 2009 | volume= 4 | issue=  | pages= 25 | pmid=19426507 | doi=10.1186/1748-5908-4-25 | pmc=2690576 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19426507  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22547471">{{cite journal| author=Bradley EH, Curry LA, Spatz ES, Herrin J, Cherlin EJ, Curtis JP et al.| title=Hospital strategies for reducing risk-standardized mortality rates in acute myocardial infarction. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 2012 | volume= 156 | issue= 9 | pages= 618-26 | pmid=22547471 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-156-9-201205010-00003 | pmc=3386642 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22547471  }} </ref>
Ideally, positive deviants should be identified by blinded comparison to control groups<ref name="bock">Bock, L. (2015). The Two Tail. In: Work rules!: Insights from inside Google that will transform how you live and lead. Twelve.</ref>, yet this is infrequently done<ref name="pmid26590198">{{cite journal| author=Baxter R, Taylor N, Kellar I, Lawton R| title=What methods are used to apply positive deviance within healthcare organisations? A systematic review. | journal=BMJ Qual Saf | year= 2016 | volume= 25 | issue= 3 | pages= 190-201 | pmid=26590198 | doi=10.1136/bmjqs-2015-004386 | pmc=4789698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26590198  }} </ref> and instead deviants are informally identified by reputation<ref name="pmid21646881">{{cite journal| author=McAlearney AS, Garman AN, Song PH, McHugh M, Robbins J, Harrison MI| title=High-performance work systems in health care management, part 2: qualitative evidence from five case studies. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2011 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 214-26 | pmid=21646881 | doi=10.1097/HMR.0b013e318201d1bf | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21646881  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23690328">{{cite journal| author=Sinsky CA, Willard-Grace R, Schutzbank AM, Sinsky TA, Margolius D, Bodenheimer T| title=In search of joy in practice: a report of 23 high-functioning primary care practices. | journal=Ann Fam Med | year= 2013 | volume= 11 | issue= 3 | pages= 272-8 | pmid=23690328 | doi=10.1370/afm.1531 | pmc=3659145 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23690328  }} </ref>.


Various statistical approaches are used to identify the true deviants<ref name="pmid28384376">{{cite journal| author=Pimperl AF, Rodriguez HP, Schmittdiel JA, Shortell SM| title=A Two-Step Method to Identify Positive Deviant Physician Organizations of Accountable Care Organizations with Robust Performance Management Systems. | journal=Health Serv Res | year= 2018 | volume= 53 | issue= 3 | pages= 1851-1869 | pmid=28384376 | doi=10.1111/1475-6773.12693 | pmc=5980166 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28384376  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12110077">{{cite journal| author=Berlowitz DR, Christiansen CL, Brandeis GH, Ash AS, Kader B, Morris JN et al.| title=Profiling nursing homes using Bayesian hierarchical modeling. | journal=J Am Geriatr Soc | year= 2002 | volume= 50 | issue= 6 | pages= 1126-30 | pmid=12110077 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12110077  }} </ref> and not all QI measures may be appropriate<ref name="pmid29749286">{{cite journal| author=O'Hara JK, Grasic K, Gutacker N, Street A, Foy R, Thompson C et al.| title=Identifying positive deviants in healthcare quality and safety: a mixed methods study. | journal=J R Soc Med | year= 2018 | volume= 111 | issue= 8 | pages= 276-291 | pmid=29749286 | doi=10.1177/0141076818772230 | pmc=6100151 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29749286  }} </ref>.
Overworked managers may treat employees unfairly<ref name="SherfVenkataramani2019">{{cite journal|last1=Sherf|first1=Elad N.|last2=Venkataramani|first2=Vijaya|last3=Gajendran|first3=Ravi S.|title=Too Busy to Be Fair? The Effect of Workload and Rewards on Managers’ Justice Rule Adherence|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=62|issue=2|year=2019|pages=469–502|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2016.1061}}</ref>.
Daily performance appraisal may be harmful<ref name="MitchellGreenbaum2019">{{cite journal|last1=Mitchell|first1=Marie S.|last2=Greenbaum|first2=Rebecca L.|last3=Vogel|first3=Ryan M.|last4=Mawritz|first4=Mary B.|last5=Keating|first5=David J.|title=Can You Handle the Pressure? The Effect of Performance Pressure on Stress Appraisals, Self-regulation, and Behavior|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=62|issue=2|year=2019|pages=531–552|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2016.0646}}</ref>.


====Harmful practices====
===Financial incentives===
Financial targets may not help motivate<ref>McLeod at al (2021). Financial Targets Don’t Motivate Employees. Harvard Business Review. Available at https://hbr.org/2021/02/financial-targets-dont-motivate-employees</ref>.


Pay for performance can reduce mental health of employees<ref name="DahlPierce2019">{{cite journal|last1=Dahl|first1=Michael S.|last2=Pierce|first2=Lamar|title=Pay-for-Performance and Employee Mental Health: Large Sample Evidence Using Employee Prescription Drug Usage|journal=Academy of Management Discoveries|year=2019|issn=2168-1007|doi=10.5465/amd.2018.0007}} summary at https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amd.2018.0007.summary</ref>.
Pay for performance can reduce mental health of employees<ref name="DahlPierce2019">{{cite journal|last1=Dahl|first1=Michael S.|last2=Pierce|first2=Lamar|title=Pay-for-Performance and Employee Mental Health: Large Sample Evidence Using Employee Prescription Drug Usage|journal=Academy of Management Discoveries|year=2019|issn=2168-1007|doi=10.5465/amd.2018.0007}} summary at https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amd.2018.0007.summary</ref>.
Overworked managers may treat employees unfairly<ref name="SherfVenkataramani2019">{{cite journal|last1=Sherf|first1=Elad N.|last2=Venkataramani|first2=Vijaya|last3=Gajendran|first3=Ravi S.|title=Too Busy to Be Fair? The Effect of Workload and Rewards on Managers’ Justice Rule Adherence|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=62|issue=2|year=2019|pages=469–502|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2016.1061}}</ref>
 
.
However, one field study found that the impact of incentives can be positive depending on the management style<ref name="KongParkPeng2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Kong | first1 = Dejun Tony | last2 = Park | first2 = Sanghee | last3 = Peng | first3 = Jian | title = Appraising and Reacting to Perceived Pay-for-Performance: Leader Competence and Warmth as Critical Contingencies | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = 13 May 2022 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2021.0209 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 
==Employee turnover==
The antecedents of the turnover of medical assistants have been systematically reviewed<ref name="Miller Maziarz Wagner Bell 2023 pp. 360–368">{{cite journal | last=Miller | first=Vivian J. | last2=Maziarz | first2=Lauren | last3=Wagner | first3=Jennifer | last4=Bell | first4=Julia | last5=Burek | first5=Melissa | title=Nursing assistant turnover in nursing homes: A scoping review of the literature | journal=Geriatric Nursing | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=51 | year=2023 | issn=0197-4572 | doi=10.1016/j.gerinurse.2023.03.027 | pages=360–368}}</ref>.


==Organizational decision making and conflict resolution==
==Organizational decision making and conflict resolution==
Organizational decision making is "the process by which decisions are made in an institution or other organization". <ref>{{MeSH|Organizational decision making}}</ref>
Organizational decision making is "the process by which decisions are made in an institution or other organization". <ref>{{MeSH|Organizational decision making}}</ref>
Evidence-based recommendations have been made for decisions by small groups<ref>Emmerling T, Rooders D. 7 Strategies for Better Group Decision-Making. Harvard Business Review 2020; https://hbr.org/2020/09/7-strategies-for-better-group-decision-making.</ref>:
* "Keep the group small when you need to make an important decision"
* "Choose a heterogenous group over a homogenous one (most of the time)"
* "Appoint a strategic dissenter (or even two)"
* "Collect opinions independently"
* "Provide a safe space to speak up"
* "Don’t over-rely on experts"
* "Share collective responsibility"


===Consensus===
===Consensus===
Group members may overestimate the degree of consensus<ref>Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(3), 279–301. {{doi|10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X}}</ref>. This may be due to difficulty in inferring the opinion of a teammember<ref>Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(3), 279–301. {{doi|0.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X}}<ref>.
Group members may overestimate the degree of consensus<ref>Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(3), 279–301. {{doi|10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X}}</ref>. This may be due to difficulty in inferring the opinion of a teammember<ref>Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13(3), 279–301. {{doi|0.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X}}</ref>.


===Voting===
===Voting===
There is conflicting evidence on the role of voting; however, studies varies in whether voting was attributed or anonymous and whether postdecisional voice by the minority opinion was encouraged and recorded.
There is conflicting evidence on the role of voting; however, studies varies in whether voting was attributed or anonymous and whether postdecisional voice by the minority opinion was encouraged and recorded.
There are multiple types of voting and multivoting may be the best choice<ref name="JohnsonAwtreyOng2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = Michael D | last2 = Awtrey | first2 = Eli | last3 = Ong | first3 = Wei Jee | title = Verdicts, Elections, and Counterterrorism: When Groups Take Unofficial Votes | journal = Academy of Management Discoveries | date = 28 September 2022 | eissn = 2168-1007 | doi = 10.5465/amd.2021.0099 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>:
* "Plurality voting, where voters can only choose one option." This can be problematic when more than two options occur and a spoiler effect phenomenon occurs.
* "Ranked-choice voting, where voters indicate their preferences from best to worst"
* "Multivoting is where voters are given multiple votes that they can allocate across options." The number of votes to allow voters to have is suggested to be great than 𝑜(𝑜―1)/2 where 𝑜 is the number of options<ref name="JohnsonAwtreyOng2022">.
* "Approval voting, where voters indicate which candidates are acceptable to them and which are not"


In an experimental study, decision making by voting, compared to consensus building, leads to "highest satisfaction with the group decision-making process, and the lowest amount of expressed negative socio-emotional behaviors"; however, consensus leads to higher "feelings of personal participation".<ref name="GreenTaber1980">{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Stephen G.|last2=Taber|first2=Thomas D.|title=The effects of three social decision schemes on decision group process|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance|volume=25|issue=1|year=1980|pages=97–106|issn=00305073|doi=10.1016/0030-5073(80)90027-6}}</ref>.
In an experimental study, decision making by voting, compared to consensus building, leads to "highest satisfaction with the group decision-making process, and the lowest amount of expressed negative socio-emotional behaviors"; however, consensus leads to higher "feelings of personal participation".<ref name="GreenTaber1980">{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Stephen G.|last2=Taber|first2=Thomas D.|title=The effects of three social decision schemes on decision group process|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance|volume=25|issue=1|year=1980|pages=97–106|issn=00305073|doi=10.1016/0030-5073(80)90027-6}}</ref>.
Line 246: Line 664:


===Delphi technique===
===Delphi technique===
A Delphi technique may be more effective.<ref name="Van de Delbecq pp. 605–621">{{cite journal | last=Van De Ven | first=A. H. | last2=Delbecq | first2=A. L. | title=The Effectiveness of Nominal, Delphi, and Interacting Group Decision Making Processes. | journal=Academy of Management Journal | publisher=The Academy of Management | volume=17 | issue=4 | date=1974 | issn=0001-4273 | doi=10.2307/255641 | pages=605–621 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/255641}}</ref>
A Delphi technique may be more effective.


The Delphi technique involves<ref name="pmid28678098">{{cite journal| author=Humphrey-Murto S, Varpio L, Wood TJ, Gonsalves C, Ufholz LA, Mascioli K et al.| title=The Use of the Delphi and Other Consensus Group Methods in Medical Education Research: A Review. | journal=Acad Med | year= 2017 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=28678098 | doi=10.1097/ACM.0000000000001812 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28678098  }} </ref>:
The Delphi technique involves:
# Identifying a research problem
# Identifying a research problem
# Completing a literature search
# Completing a literature search
Line 256: Line 674:
# Summarizing the findings
# Summarizing the findings


A modified Delphi had been developed by the RAND Corporation.<ref name="RAND_Delphi">{{Cite web
A modified Delphi had been developed by the RAND Corporation.
| title = Delphi Method | author = | work = rand.org | date = | publisher = RAND Corporation | accessdate = 2017-07-15 | url = https://www.rand.org/topics/delphi-method.html | quote = }}</ref><ref name="RAND_Manual">{{Cite web | title = The RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method User's Manual | author =Fitch, K| work = rand.org | date =2001 | accessdate = 2017-07-15 | url = http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1269.html | publisher = RAND Corporation| ISBN = 0-8330-2918-5}}</ref>
 
The technique can vary regarding the ity of participants and the number of iterations or rounds.
 
The Delphi Technique can be conducted online either asynchronously via email or synchronously using a software such as [https://www.rand.org/pubs/tools/expertlens.html ExpertLens].
 
Key attributes of the Delphi technique are<ref name="pmid28678098">{{cite journal| author=Humphrey-Murto S, Varpio L, Wood TJ, Gonsalves C, Ufholz LA, Mascioli K | display-authors=etal| title=The Use of the Delphi and Other Consensus Group Methods in Medical Education Research: A Review. | journal=Acad Med | year= 2017 | volume= 92 | issue= 10 | pages= 1491-1498 | pmid=28678098 | doi=10.1097/ACM.0000000000001812 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28678098  }} </ref><ref name="pmid33072683">{{cite journal| author=Niederberger M, Spranger J| title=Delphi Technique in Health Sciences: A Map. | journal=Front Public Health | year= 2020 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 457 | pmid=33072683 | doi=10.3389/fpubh.2020.00457 | pmc=7536299 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33072683  }} </ref><ref name="pmid34322364">{{cite journal| author=Nasa P, Jain R, Juneja D| title=Delphi methodology in healthcare research: How to decide its appropriateness. | journal=World J Methodol | year= 2021 | volume= 11 | issue= 4 | pages= 116-129 | pmid=34322364 | doi=10.5662/wjm.v11.i4.116 | pmc=8299905 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=34322364  }} </ref>:
* Anonymity of voting<ref name="pmid28678098"/><ref name="pmid33072683"/><ref name="pmid34322364"/>
* Iterations<ref name="pmid28678098"/><ref name="pmid34322364"/> or repetitions<ref name="pmid33072683"/>
 
* Controlled feedback<ref name="pmid28678098"/><ref name="pmid33072683"/><ref name="pmid34322364"/>
 
* Statistical analysis of group response<ref name="pmid28678098"/><ref name="pmid33072683"/><ref name="pmid34322364"/>
 
* Structured interactions<ref name="pmid28678098"/> or questionnaires<ref name="pmid33072683"/>
 
===Goal setting===
In 1954, management by objectives was proposed<ref>Drucker, P. (1954). F. The practice of management. {{ISBN|0060110953}}</ref> and has been sinced criticized<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0017-8012| issue = January 2003| last = Levinson| first = Harry| title = Management by Whose Objectives?| work = Harvard Business Review| accessdate = 2020-03-15| date = 2003-01-01| url = https://hbr.org/2003/01/management-by-whose-objectives}}</ref>.
 
The structure of goals has been proposed to be<ref>Doran, George T. "There’s a SMART way to write management’s goals and objectives." Management review 70.11 (1981): 35-36.</ref>:
* Specific
* Measurable
* Assignable
* Realistic
* Time-related
 
Having specific organizational goals helps workforce engagement<ref>Locke, Edwin A., and Gary P. Latham. "Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey." American psychologist 57.9 (2002): 705. {{doi|10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705}}</ref>
 
Objectives and key results (OKR) was proposed as an approach in 1983<ref name=grove_book>{{Cite book|title=High Output Management|last=Grove|first=Andrew|publisher=Random House|year=1983|isbn=0394532341|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/highoutputmanage00grov}}</ref>.
 
Key performance indicators (KPI) is another approach that was described in 1990<ref>{{citation|author=Carol Fitz-Gibbon|title=Performance indicators|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxK0MUHeiI4C|journal=BERA Dialogues|volume=|issue=2|pages=|year=1990|isbn=978-1-85359-092-4|author-link=Carol Fitz-Gibbon}}</ref>.
 
Objectives, goals, strategies and measures (OGSM) is another approach.
 
Stretch goals are inconsistently effective.<ref>Sitkin, Sim B., et al. “The Stretch Goal Paradox.” Harvard Business Review, no. January–February 2017, Jan. 2017. hbr.org, https://hbr.org/2017/01/the-stretch-goal-paradox</ref>.
 
There may be advantages to goals that are set by the workforce rather than management<ref name="pmid31219258">{{cite journal| author=Welsh DT, Baer MD, Sessions H| title=Hot pursuit: The affective consequences of organization-set versus self-set goals for emotional exhaustion and citizenship behavior. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2020 | volume= 105 | issue= 2 | pages= 166-185 | pmid=31219258 | doi=10.1037/apl0000429 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31219258  }} </ref>.
 
Goals developed with an outside view for reference class forecasting may avoid overly optimistic goals.<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0017-8012| last = Grushka-Cockayne| first = Yael| title = Use Data to Revolutionize Project Planning| work = Harvard Business Review| accessdate = 2020-03-15| date = 2020-02-26| url = https://hbr.org/2020/02/use-data-to-revolutionize-project-planning}}</ref><ref name="Kahneman">{{Cite news| issn = 0017-8012| issue = July 2003| last = Kahneman| first = Dan Lovallo and Daniel| title = Delusions of Success: How Optimism Undermines Executives’ Decisions| work = Harvard Business Review| accessdate = 2020-03-15| date = 2003-07-01| url = https://hbr.org/2003/07/delusions-of-success-how-optimism-undermines-executives-decisions}}</ref>
 
Specific goals can create problems according to [[Goodhart's law]].
 
The quality of goal setting can be measured with<ref name="pmid23982458">{{cite journal| author=Deane FP, Andresen R, Crowe TP, Oades LG, Ciarrochi J, Williams V| title=A comparison of two coaching approaches to enhance implementation of a recovery-oriented service model. | journal=Adm Policy Ment Health | year= 2014 | volume= 41 | issue= 5 | pages= 660-7 | pmid=23982458 | doi=10.1007/s10488-013-0514-4 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23982458  }} </ref>:
* Goal Instrument for Quality (Goal-IQ) developed in 2009. 11 items<ref name="pmid19346208">{{cite journal| author=Clarke SP, Crowe TP, Oades LG, Deane FP| title=Do goal-setting interventions improve the quality of goals in mental health services? | journal=Psychiatr Rehabil J | year= 2009 | volume= 32 | issue= 4 | pages= 292-9 | pmid=19346208 | doi=10.2975/32.4.2009.292.299 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19346208  }} </ref>
*Goal and Action Plan Instrument for Quality (GAP-IQ) which updates the Goal-IQ. 17 items<ref name="pmid23982458"/>
 
{{Quote
|text= '''Point 11'''
 
(a) Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership.


The technique can vary regarding anonymity of participants and the number of iterations or rounds.
(b) Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership.
|author = Deming, W. Edwards.
|source = The Essential Deming: Leadership Principles from the Father of Quality (p. 141). McGraw-Hill Education. {{ISBN|0071790225}}
}}


The Delphi Technique can be conducted online either asynchronously via email<ref name="pmid24056515">{{cite journal| author=Rideout C, Gil R, Browne R, Calhoon C, Rey M, Gourevitch M et al.| title=Using the Delphi and snow card techniques to build consensus among diverse community and academic stakeholders. | journal=Prog Community Health Partnersh | year= 2013 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 331-9 | pmid=24056515 | doi=10.1353/cpr.2013.0033 | pmc=4154599 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24056515  }} </ref> or synchronously using a software such as [https://www.rand.org/pubs/tools/expertlens.html ExpertLens].<ref name="pmid28011596">{{cite journal| author=Khodyakov D, Grant S, Meeker D, Booth M, Pacheco-Santivanez N, Kim KK| title=Comparative analysis of stakeholder experiences with an online approach to prioritizing patient-centered research topics. | journal=J Am Med Inform Assoc | year= 2017 | volume= 24 | issue= 3 | pages= 537-543 | pmid=28011596 | doi=10.1093/jamia/ocw157 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28011596  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27619536">{{cite journal| author=Khodyakov D, Grant S, Barber CE, Marshall DA, Esdaile JM, Lacaille D| title=Acceptability of an online modified Delphi panel approach for developing health services performance measures: results from 3 panels on arthritis research. | journal=J Eval Clin Pract | year= 2017 | volume= 23 | issue= 2 | pages= 354-360 | pmid=27619536 | doi=10.1111/jep.12623 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27619536  }} </ref>
Deming suggests limiting measurement to identifying outliers.


==Organizational change and innovation==
==Organizational change and innovation==
{{See also|Quality improvement}}
The Cochrane Collaboration, in 2011, did not find evidence of methods that can improve organizational culture<ref name="pmid21249706">{{cite journal| author=Parmelli E, Flodgren G, Schaafsma ME, Baillie N, Beyer FR, Eccles MP| title=The effectiveness of strategies to change organisational culture to improve healthcare performance. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2011 | volume=  | issue= 1 | pages= CD008315 | pmid=21249706 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008315.pub2 | pmc=4170901 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21249706  }} </ref>.
A survey for Practice adaptive reserve may<ref name="pmid25524651">{{cite journal| author=Tu SP, Young VM, Coombs LJ, Williams RS, Kegler MC, Kimura AT et al.| title=Practice adaptive reserve and colorectal cancer screening best practices at community health center clinics in 7 states. | journal=Cancer | year= 2015 | volume= 121 | issue= 8 | pages= 1241-8 | pmid=25524651 | doi=10.1002/cncr.29176 | pmc=4393345 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25524651  }} </ref> or many not<ref name="pmid29632223">{{cite journal| author=Henderson KH, DeWalt DA, Halladay J, Weiner BJ, Kim JI, Fine J et al.| title=Organizational Leadership and Adaptive Reserve in Blood Pressure Control: The Heart Health NOW Study. | journal=Ann Fam Med | year= 2018 | volume= 16 | issue= Suppl 1 | pages= S29-S34 | pmid=29632223 | doi=10.1370/afm.2210 | pmc=5891311 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29632223  }} </ref> predict successful organizational change. Practive adaptive reserve is negatively associated with burnout<ref name="pmid29558229">{{cite journal| author=Huynh C, Bowles D, Yen MS, Phillips A, Waller R, Hall L et al.| title=Change implementation: the association of adaptive reserve and burnout among inpatient medicine physicians and nurses. | journal=J Interprof Care | year= 2018 | volume= 32 | issue= 5 | pages= 549-555 | pmid=29558229 | doi=10.1080/13561820.2018.1451307 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29558229  }} </ref><ref name="pmid29632223">{{cite journal| author=Henderson KH, DeWalt DA, Halladay J, Weiner BJ, Kim JI, Fine J et al.| title=Organizational Leadership and Adaptive Reserve in Blood Pressure Control: The Heart Health NOW Study. | journal=Ann Fam Med | year= 2018 | volume= 16 | issue= Suppl 1 | pages= S29-S34 | pmid=29632223 | doi=10.1370/afm.2210 | pmc=5891311 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29632223  }} </ref>
Many studies have examined how to promote organizational change via patient-centered medical home in primary care by large projects such as the VA PACT<ref name="pmid24715401">{{cite journal| author=Luck J, Bowman C, York L, Midboe A, Taylor T, Gale R et al.| title=Multimethod evaluation of the VA's peer-to-peer Toolkit for patient-centered medical home implementation. | journal=J Gen Intern Med | year= 2014 | volume= 29 Suppl 2 | issue=  | pages= S572-8 | pmid=24715401 | doi=10.1007/s11606-013-2738-0 | pmc=4070245 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24715401  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24715402">{{cite journal| author=Bidassie B, Davies ML, Stark R, Boushon B| title=VA experience in implementing Patient-Centered Medical Home using a breakthrough series collaborative. | journal=J Gen Intern Med | year= 2014 | volume= 29 Suppl 2 | issue=  | pages= S563-71 | pmid=24715402 | doi=10.1007/s11606-014-2773-5 | pmc=4070243 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24715402  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24715407">{{cite journal| author=Yano EM, Bair MJ, Carrasquillo O, Krein SL, Rubenstein LV| title=Patient Aligned Care Teams (PACT): VA's journey to implement patient-centered medical homes. | journal=J Gen Intern Med | year= 2014 | volume= 29 Suppl 2 | issue=  | pages= S547-9 | pmid=24715407 | doi=10.1007/s11606-014-2835-8 | pmc=4070237 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24715407  }} </ref> and the American Academy of Family Physician<ref name="pmid25281823">{{cite journal| author=Chase SM, Crabtree BF, Stewart EE, Nutting PA, Miller WL, Stange KC et al.| title=Coaching strategies for enhancing practice transformation. | journal=Fam Pract | year= 2015 | volume= 32 | issue= 1 | pages= 75-81 | pmid=25281823 | doi=10.1093/fampra/cmu062 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25281823  }} </ref>. These methods have been systematically reviewed.
=== Endorsement/endorsing ===
Endorsing ideas, especially if the endorser uses language discordant to the endorser's gender<ref name="McClean Kim Martinez 2022 pp. 634–655">{{cite journal | last=McClean | first=Elizabeth J. | last2=Kim | first2=Sijun | last3=Martinez | first3=Tomas | title=Which Ideas for Change Are Endorsed? How Agentic and Communal Voice Affects Endorsement Differently for Men and for Women | journal=Academy of Management Journal | publisher=Academy of Management | volume=65 | issue=2 | year=2022 | issn=0001-4273 | doi=10.5465/amj.2019.0492 | pages=634–655}}</ref>.
* Female endorser: "Agentic voice (task content; assertive, confident presentation style)"
* Male endorser: "Communal voice (relational content; polite, humble presentation style)"
===Innovation===
===Innovation===
{{main|Innovation}}
Two types:
Two types:
* Internal - adopting adapting
* Internal - adopting and adapting. Various issues affect knowledge sharing within an organization<ref name="WangNoe2010">{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Sheng|last2=Noe|first2=Raymond A.|title=Knowledge sharing: A review and directions for future research|journal=Human Resource Management Review|volume=20|issue=2|year=2010|pages=115–131|issn=10534822|doi=10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.10.001}}</ref><ref name="GagnéTian2019">{{cite journal|last1=Gagné|first1=Marylène|last2=Tian|first2=Amy Wei|last3=Soo|first3=Christine|last4=Zhang|first4=Bo|last5=Ho|first5=Khee Seng Benjamin|last6=Hosszu|first6=Katrina|title=Different motivations for knowledge sharing and hiding: The role of motivating work design|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|year=2019|issn=0894-3796|doi=10.1002/job.2364}}</ref><ref name="Gagne2019">{{Cite web| last = Gagne| first = Marylene| title = Creating a Knowledge-Sharing Culture at Work| work = Psychology Today| accessdate = 2019-08-04| date = 2019-05-05| url = https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/getting-monday-morning/201905/creating-knowledge-sharing-culture-work}}</ref>. Recommendations to promote knowledge sharing are<ref name="Gagne2019">{{Cite web| last = Gagne| first = Marylene| title = Creating a Knowledge-Sharing Culture at Work| work = Psychology Today| accessdate = 2019-08-04| date = 2019-05-05| url = https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/getting-monday-morning/201905/creating-knowledge-sharing-culture-work}}</ref>:
** "Design work in a way that encourages sharing and promotes the right type of motivation. Give stimulating work that uses brain cells and give people autonomy. Don’t overload people (which creates time pressure). Be careful when creating too many 'dependencies' between workers as it can also create pressure."
** "Create a cooperative culture. Do not create competition through individual incentives or through labelling [sic] people as winners versus losers or publicly comparing them (for example, what messages do performance appraisals send?)."
** "Act as a role model and share your knowledge with others. Show you trust others to make good use of the knowledge you share with them. Also make sure you use the knowledge they share with you competently and with integrity."
 
* External - development
* External - development


====Measuring====
===Appreciative inquiry===
{{main|Quality_improvement#Appreciative_inquiry}}
 
Appreciative inquiry was developed in 1987 by Cooperrider and Srivastva<ref>Cooperrider, David L., and Suresh Srivastva. "[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1a58/21673c300e26f47517c82ab58c63d10a74cd.pdf APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY IN ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE]." (1987).</ref> Appreciative inquiry is consistent with complexity science<ref name="pmid16156191">{{cite journal| author=Stroebel CK, McDaniel RR, Crabtree BF, Miller WL, Nutting PA, Stange KC| title=How complexity science can inform a reflective process for improvement in primary care practices. | journal=Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf | year= 2005 | volume= 31 | issue= 8 | pages= 438-46 | pmid=16156191 | doi=10.1016/s1553-7250(05)31057-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16156191  }} </ref>.
 
===Positive deviance===
{{main|Positive deviance}}
Positive deviance is consistent with complexity leadership<ref name="pmid30709082">{{cite journal| author=Belrhiti Z, Nebot Giralt A, Marchal B| title=Complex Leadership in Healthcare: A Scoping Review. | journal=Int J Health Policy Manag | year= 2018 | volume= 7 | issue= 12 | pages= 1073-1084 | pmid=30709082 | doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2018.75 | pmc=6358662 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30709082  }} </ref><ref name="LindbergClancy2010">{{cite journal|last1=Lindberg|first1=Curt|last2=Clancy|first2=Thomas R.|title=Positive Deviance|journal=JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration|volume=40|issue=4|year=2010|pages=150–153|issn=0002-0443|doi=10.1097/NNA.0b013e3181d40e39}}</ref><ref name="LindbergSchneider2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lindberg|first1=Curt|last2=Schneider|first2=Marguerite|title=Combating infections at Maine Medical Center: Insights into complexity-informed leadership from positive deviance|journal=Leadership|volume=9|issue=2|year=2013|pages=229–253|issn=1742-7150|doi=10.1177/1742715012468784}}</ref> and [[learning health system]]s<ref name="pmid30398449">{{cite journal| author=McLachlan S, Potts HWW, Dube K, Buchanan D, Lean S, Gallagher T | display-authors=etal| title=The Heimdall Framework for Supporting Characterisation of Learning Health Systems. | journal=J Innov Health Inform | year= 2018 | volume= 25 | issue= 2 | pages= 77-87 | pmid=30398449 | doi=10.14236/jhi.v25i2.996 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30398449  }} </ref>.
 
A positive deviance approach has been recommended to identify and disseminate best organizational practices<ref name="pmid15539680">{{cite journal| author=Marsh DR, Schroeder DG, Dearden KA, Sternin J, Sternin M| title=The power of positive deviance. | journal=BMJ | year= 2004 | volume= 329 | issue= 7475 | pages= 1177-9 | pmid=15539680 | doi=10.1136/bmj.329.7475.1177 | pmc=527707 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15539680  }} </ref><ref name="bock">Bock, L. (2015). The Two Tails. In: Work rules!: Insights from inside Google that will transform how you live and lead. Twelve. {{ISBN| 1455554790}}</ref> <ref name="pmid26590198">{{cite journal| author=Baxter R, Taylor N, Kellar I, Lawton R| title=What methods are used to apply positive deviance within healthcare organisations? A systematic review. | journal=BMJ Qual Saf | year= 2016 | volume= 25 | issue= 3 | pages= 190-201 | pmid=26590198 | doi=10.1136/bmjqs-2015-004386 | pmc=4789698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26590198  }} </ref><ref name="pmid36215702">{{cite journal| author=ElChamaa R, Seely AJE, Jeong D, Kitto S| title=Barriers and Facilitators to the Implementation and Adoption of a Continuous Quality Improvement Program in Surgery: A Case Study. | journal=J Contin Educ Health Prof | year= 2022 | volume= 42 | issue= 4 | pages= 227-235 | pmid=36215702 | doi=10.1097/CEH.0000000000000461 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=36215702  }} </ref>Early description of this method was<ref name="pmid15539680"/>:
 
* "Develop case definitions"
* "Identify four to six people who have achieved an unexpected good outcome despite high risk"
* "Interview and observe these people to discover uncommon behaviours or enabling factors that could explain the good outcome"
* "Analyse the findings to confirm that the behaviours are uncommon and accessible to those who need to adopt them"
* "Design behaviour change activities to encourage community adoption of the new behaviours"
* "Monitor implementation and evaluate the results"
 
===Measuring===
 
Overall measurement of learning and improvement can be measured with<ref name="PorathSpreitzer2012">{{cite journal|last1=Porath|first1=Christine|last2=Spreitzer|first2=Gretchen|last3=Gibson|first3=Cristina|last4=Garnett|first4=Flannery G.|title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=33|issue=2|year=2012|pages=250–275|issn=08943796|doi=10.1002/job.756}}</ref>:
Overall measurement of learning and improvement can be measured with<ref name="PorathSpreitzer2012">{{cite journal|last1=Porath|first1=Christine|last2=Spreitzer|first2=Gretchen|last3=Gibson|first3=Cristina|last4=Garnett|first4=Flannery G.|title=Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=33|issue=2|year=2012|pages=250–275|issn=08943796|doi=10.1002/job.756}}</ref>:
* "I see myself continually improving"
* "I see myself continually improving". Responses on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree).
* "I continue to learn more as time goes by"
* "I continue to learn more as time goes by".  Responses on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree).


Internal innovation due to reciprocal learning
Internal innovation due to reciprocal learning
* "I am frequently taught new things by other people I work with"<ref name="pmid21345225">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Palmer R, Lanham H, Jordan M, McDaniel RR, Noël PH et al.| title=Reciprocal learning and chronic care model implementation in primary care: results from a new scale of learning in primary care. | journal=BMC Health Serv Res | year= 2011 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 44 | pmid=21345225 | doi=10.1186/1472-6963-11-44 | pmc=3050698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21345225  }} </ref>
* "I am frequently taught new things by other people I work with". Responses scored from one (strongly agree) to five (strongly disagree).<ref name="pmid21345225">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Palmer R, Lanham H, Jordan M, McDaniel RR, Noël PH et al.| title=Reciprocal learning and chronic care model implementation in primary care: results from a new scale of learning in primary care. | journal=BMC Health Serv Res | year= 2011 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 44 | pmid=21345225 | doi=10.1186/1472-6963-11-44 | pmc=3050698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21345225  }} </ref>


External innovation due to environmental scanning.
External innovation due to environmental scanning.
Line 306: Line 815:
* [[Burnout (psychology)]]
* [[Burnout (psychology)]]
* [[Psychometrics]]
* [[Psychometrics]]
* [[Quiet quitter]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[List of publications in psychology#Industrial and organizational psychology|Important publications in Industrial and organizational psychology ]]
* [[List of publications in psychology#Industrial and organizational psychology|Important publications in Industrial and organizational psychology ]]

Latest revision as of 15:36, 6 January 2024

Robert G. Badgett, M.D.[1]

Industrial and organizational psychology is "the branch of applied psychology concerned with the application of psychologic principles and methods to industrial problems including selection and training of workers, working conditions, etc."[1]

Research studies in organizational psychology can be:

  • Experimental or causal studies. Ex-vivo laboratory with volunteers in simulations or games.
  • Observational or correlational studies. In-vivo field studies.

Organizational states

Differences between the states have been challenged and instead an A-factor has been proposed[2]. However, this assesrtion has been challenged[3].

Workforce wellbeing has been described as a combination states, "job satisfaction, work engagement, and lower burnout"[4].

Organizational commitment, while not strictly a state, has conceptual overlaps with engagement. Meyer and Allen's proposes a three-factor organizational commitment scale (OCS)[5]: affective, continuance, normative[6][7]. Engagement, especially dedication, is correlated with commitment[8].

Outcomes of these states are discussed in the separate "Outcomes" section below this.

Flourishing

Flourishing involves a positive state of psychological or social well-being and positive functioning (not necessarily learning) and addresses life in general rather than just work.[9]

Keys recommends measuring with the 14-item Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF)[10][11]:

  • psychological or social well-being
  • high score on 6 of 11 scales of positive functioning

However, the concept is variably conceptualized thus making it difficult to study.[12] Some authors do not include positive functioning[13].

Important contributors to flourishing focus on relationships with others at work and are[14]:

  • Giving to others (due to impact on meaningfulness)
  • Task assistance receipt (due to impact on job satisfaction)
  • Friendship (due to positive emotions at work)
  • Personal growth (due to impact on life satisfaction).
Measurement

A six-point scale has been proposed[15][16].

A short scale to measure flourishing has been proposed.[17]

Thriving

Thriving has two components according to factor analysis[18]:

  • Vitality. In this analysis, vitality is very similar to Schaufeli's Vigor subscale of the UWES-9 Engagement scale (see 'Engagement' below)
  • Sense of learning or improvement

One similar, proposed definition is[19]"

an employee who is thriving in a state of optimal health as one for whom the functions of maintenance, growth, and generativity support each other

Alternatively, Microsoft has defined in their Work Trend Index that thriving is "“to be energized and empowered to do meaningful work.”[20] Thus, Microsoft's "energized" maps to Spreitzer's vitality and "empowered" implies learning and improvement. Microsoft includes questions such as:

  • "Would you say you are thriving or struggling with the following types of bonds or relationships at work?"

A separate body of research has emerged more recently that gives a broader definition to thriving, but does not cite the above research that has used factor analysis to identify core features[21].

Importance

87% of U.S. workers across industries report that their job "requires [the respondent] to learn new things".[22]

Measurement

Thriving can be measured[23]:

  • "I see myself continually improving"
  • "I continue to learn more as time goes by"

Thriving can also be measured by[24]:

  • "To what extent do you learn new things at work?
  • "To what extent do the things you learn at work help your in your life"
  • "To what extent do the things you learn at work enable you to thrive in life"

Responses range from 1 = “not at all” to 5 = “to an exceptional degree”

A component of thriving can be measured by[25]:

  • "I am frequently taught new things by other people in this clinic."

Antecedents

The antecedents of thriving have been reviewed[26]. Thriving is negatively correlated with burnout[18][27]; however, this benefit may be confined to employees with high openness to experience[27]

Thriving is fostered among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional by an "employee involvement climate", defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization"[28].

Outcomes

A meta-analysis by Kleine found that "that thriving exhibits small, albeit incremental predictive validity above and beyond positive affect and work engagement, for task performance, job satisfaction, subjective health, and burnout".[29]

Engagement

Engagement has three dimensions according to factor analysis[30]:

  • Vigor (physical engagement)
  • Dedication (effective engagement)
  • Absorption (cognitive engagement)

Engagement depends on both organizational factors and personnel personality[31].

  • Inadequate job resources are a cause as found in the job demands-resources model of burnout[32].
  • Engagement is associated with organizational success[33][34], including in health care[35].
  • Engagement is associated with leadership styles[36]
  • Employee personality may account for 50% of variance in engagement[37]. Associated personality traits are positive affectivity, proactive personality, conscientiousness, and extraversion.

Macey and Schneider have divided engagement into[38]

  • Trait engagement (disposition)
  • State engagement (feelings as described above by Schaufeli)
  • Behavioral (outcomes - extra-role behavior). Google has chosen to measure behavioral engagement: innovation, execution, and employee retention[39].

Engagement and burnout may be related[40]:

  • Emotional exhaustion may be the opposite of vigor
  • Cynicism may be the opposite of dedication
Measurement

Engagement can be measured by several validated scales[41][42].

  • Schaufeli's UWES-9 contains 9 question measuring the three scales vigor, dedication, and absorption.[41] The single highest loading question for each scale is below what the two additional items for each factor:
    • Vigor: "At my work, I feel bursting with energy"
      • "At my job, I feel strong and vigorous."
      • "When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work"
    • Dedication: "I am enthusiastic about my job"
      • "My job inspires me"
      • "I am proud of the work that I do"
    • Absorption: "I am immersed in my work"
      • "I get carried away when I’m working"
      • "I feel happy when I am working intensely"
  • Three item variants of Schaufeli's UWES-9 using one item from each factor.
    • A UWES-3 using the three items that loaded first for each dimension has been validated in German university students[43] and in diverse settings across 5 countries[44].
    • An other 3-item version of the UWES-9 has been validated that has the following variation[45]:
      • "Time flies when I am working" for absorption
    • Another 3-item version of the UWES, using the variations below, has been validated[46]:
      • "At my work, I feel full of energy" (vigor)
      • "Time flies when I am working" (absorption)
    • Another 3-item version of the UWES, using the variations below, has been validated[47]:
      • "At my job, I feel strong and vigorous" (vigor)
Benchmarks for selected items from the UWES-9[41] engagement survey
Dimension Item APA, 2014
(always, very often)
NHS, 2019
(always, often)
Vigor I look forward to going to work.(NHS)
When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work (APA)
33 60
Dedication I am enthusiastic about my job. 40 75
Absorption Time passes quickly when I am at work (NHS)
I am immersed in my work (APA)
40 76
Mean score 3.62 (across 9 items)
American Psychological Association (2014). 2014 Work and Well-Being Survey. Available at http://www.apaexcellence.org/assets/general/2014-work-and-wellbeing-survey-results.pdf

National Health Service. NHS Staff Survey Results. Available at https://www.nhsstaffsurveyresults.com/homepage/national-results-2019/breakdowns-questions-2019/ (data for full-time employees of acute and combined trusts.

Rich, Levine, and Crawford[42] measure engagement with three dimensions: physical, emotional, and cognitive. Example questions from these three dimensions include:

  • Physical: I try my hardest to perform well on my job
  • Emotional: I feel energetic at my job; I am enthusiastic in my job
  • Cognitive: At work, I focus a great deal of attention on my job; At work, I am absorbed by my job

Satisfaction

Satisfaction with work is a "pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences”[48].

Satisfaction has been similarly measured for life in general with single questions[49].

Job satisfaction differs from measuring life satisfaction[50].

Burnout

Workaholism more closely correlates with burnout than with engagement, although workaholism correlated with both (weakly negatively with engagement [via absorption])[51].

Engagement may not simply be the opposite of burnout. Engagement and burnout may be related more specifically[40]:

  • Emotional exhaustion may be the opposite of vigor
  • Cynicism may be the opposite of dedication

The distinction between burnout and depression is not clear[52].

Antecedents

Regarding engagement and job satisfaction, the meaningfulness of work strongly correlates. An analogy has been proposed for housestaff wellbeing that asserts that meaningfullness (relevance) is most important[53]:


Sigmund Freud...thought the meaning of life was sex. Alfred Adler thought it was power. And Viktor Frankl thought it was relevance.

The key antecedent of thriving is proposed to be self-determination theory, which includes autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This emphasis links thriving to self-determination theory of Deci. Studies have validated autonomy as an antecedent of thriving. Autonomy may be related to creative self-efficacy.

Teams may be important via their connection to membership and relatedness[54].

How to foster thriving has been reviewed and includes:

  • Providing decision-making discretion
  • Sharing Information. Using transparency and open book management
  • Minimize incivility at work
  • Provide performance feedback
  • Promote diversity
  • Mastery of tasks. In 1908, the Yerkes-Dodson law, and later the concept of 'flow' by Csikszentmihalyi, both propose that engagement is strongest when a task is intermediate in difficulty. Idea implementation leads to feelings of self-efficacy[55].

Regarding autonomy, its influence can sometimes be negative, perhaps due to overconfidence[56][57]. In a in vitro study:

  • Students were both assigned to teams and told what idea to pursue: worst performance
  • Students could choose their teammates, but they were assigned an idea to work on: best performance
  • Students were assigned to teams, but were given the autonomy to choose their own idea: best performance
  • Students were allowed to choose both their teammates and their ideas: worst performance

Characteristics of individuals

The "Big Five personality traits" are:

  • Openness to experience
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism

Of these, conscientiousness, openness to experience.

Characteristics of managers

Characteristics of managers= of managers have been found to be important for physicians and nurses[58].

Knowledge sharing and hiding

Knowledge hiding may happen in the presence of job insecurity[59].

Knowledge sharing among team members is more likely when hierarchy stability across team members was low[60].

Theory and models of antecedents, indicators, and outcomes

The antecedents of thriving have been reviewed[26].Yerkes-Dodson Law suggestions that the relationship between performance and arousal is bell-shaped so that performance may decrease with excessive arousal. This is similar to work by Csikszentmihaly[61]. The concept of "competence frustration" (versus "flow") suggests a similar bell-shaped relationship between task difficulty and engagement[62]

Phipps-Taylor has reviewed and merged theories to have four factors that influence engagement once Hygiene factors have been fulfilled[63]Ryff, earlier, has a very similar proposal[64][65]. A collaboration of the NIOSH and RAND yielded similar concepts[66].

Ryiff, 1989[64][65] Phipps-Taylor, 2013[63] NIOSH-RAND, 2018[66]
Purpose
Autonomy
Growth
Environmental Mastery
Relations
Self-acceptance

Social purpose
Autonomy/power

Mastery
Relatedness

Hygiene factors
Meaning/purpose
Autonomy/control


Peers/coworkers, manager/org support

Hygiene factors

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory was proposed in the early 1980s.[67] In this theory, autonomy, mastery (competence), and relatedness have been validated as components[68][69] and contains three factors:

  • Autonomy
  • Mastery
  • Relatedness and social connections

This framework of three items was revised to four factors by Spreitzer in 1992; not clear why relatedness was not included[70][71]:

  • Autonomy
  • Competence
  • Meaningfulness
  • Impact

Gagne included these four themes (impact and mastery merged) in 2006[72].

The SDT and Spreizter models were consolidated, with relatedness or membership included, by Ryff [65] and Phipps-Taylor[63]:

  • Ryff's six-factor model in 1989[64] of 1) 'autonomy', 2) 'environmental mastery', 3) 'purpose in life', 4) 'positive relationships', and the addition of 'personal growth' and 'self-acceptance'. Interestingly, the addition of personal growth presaged Spreitser's inclusion of personal growth in her subsequent model of thriving later in 2011.

SDT and JDR have been integrated[73].

SDT has also been proposed to explain learner behavior in medical education[74].

The components of control

The dimensions of job control may include[75]

  • "Decision authority (i.e., decision latitude concerning one's work pace and phases, and independence from other workers while carrying out tasks)"
  • "Skill discretion (i.e., the level of cognitive challenges and variety of tasks at work)"
  • "Predictability on the job (i.e., the clarity of work goals and opportunity to foresee changes and problems at one's work)"

The Finnish Occupational Stress Questionnaire measures these dimensions with 5 questions each such as[76]:

  • Decision authority, “Can you plan your work by yourself?”)
  • Skill discretion, (e.g., “Is your work monotonous or variable?”)
  • Predictability, (e.g., “Can you anticipate the problems and disturbances arising in your work?”)

Positive outcomes associated with self-determination

Employee perception of the factors of self-determination theory and servant leadership are more likely to have extra-role behavior[77]. Empowerment may be important in diverse industries[78].

Idea implementation improves wellbeing via self-efficacy[55].

Negative outcomes associated with the absence self-determination

The English Whitehall study (Whitehall data sharing policy) found that "the largest contribution to the socioeconomic gradient in CHD frequency was from low control at work" [79]. The Whitehall study asked " Fifteen items deal with decision authority and skill discretion, and these were combined into an index of decision latitude or control". The most significant outcome was "doctor-diagnosed ischaemia".

A later analysis of the Whitehall II study suggests that the harm may not confined to respondents who reported that stress affected their health - rather than simply those that reported stress[80]. Another follow-up analysis suggested importance to the perception of justice at work[81].

The Finnish cohort found that the association may be more specifically due to predictability at work (“Can you anticipate the problems and disturbances arising in your work?”)[75]

However, the causality of these associations has been disputed in the West of Scotland collaborative study that measured stress with the Rose Questionnaire that does not specifically ask job control[82]. The Scottish studies summarize the conflict in their Table.

Job demands–resources (JD-R) framework

Job demands–resources (JD-R) framework[32] proposes that "resources energize employees and foster engagement, which, in turn, yields positive outcomes such as high levels of well-being and performance"[83]

This framework ties to the theory as components of the framework "are regarded as playing a motivational role, since they help fulfil human needs for autonomy, competence or relatedness".[83]

Social exchange theory (SET)

"According to SET, relationships between employees and employers are based on norms of reciprocity."[83]


Kahn's theoretical framework

Kahn posed that three key attributes of work are meaningfulness, psychological safety. and availability (availability is related to mastery) [84] and later validated by May[85] .

Culture and Climate

Organizational culture is "beliefs and values shared by all members of the organization. These shared values, which are subject to change, are reflected in the day to day management of the organization"[86]. Components of culture have been described based on anthropology[87][88][89].

Organizational culture affects organizational effectiveness[90]

Employee involvement climate, defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization" is associated with thriving among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional[28].

The role of work climate has been examined in studies based on complexity science[91][92], in order to predict why quality improvement projects succeed[93][94][95] and fail[96].

However, attributes of culture study may not be well based on theory and linked to the above settings.[97]

A reciprocal, beneficial relationship has been proposed between a positive work climate and mission goals[98]. This may be similar the Matthew effect[99].

Outcomes of positive organizational psychology

A systematic review reported that most studies found benefit on outcomes of health care organizations that have positive organizational psychology[100].

Outcomes of engagement

Benefits

Engagement may be more important than job satisfaction of intrinsic motivation in predicting job performance[101].

Engagement is associated with organizational success[102][103], including in health care[35].

Innovation and curiosity.[104]

Job crafting and proactive and prosocial behavior

Prosocial behavior may occur[105].

Employees may recommend their job to others[106]. This is a type of prosocial behavior.

Harm

Engagement has been suggested to be susceptiable to the "Too-Much-of-a-Good-Thing Effect"[107][108]. n addition, high engagement has been associated with:

  • Harm in family life[109].

If harm occurs from too much engagement:

  • Short-term and long-term effects may different. In a two-wave panel study, short-term adverse effects were found for high levels of engagement, but no adverse effects were found for long-term engagement[110]
  • Absorption may be associated with more harm outside of work than the other dimensions of engagement[111]
  • The effect may be curvilinear[112][110].
  • May interact with workaholism[113]. However, this may mainly occur through absorption[114]

In summary, harm from high levels of engagement may be focused on absorption and may only be short-term.

Leadership

The distinction between management has become blurred[115].

Interventions to promote positive organizational psychology

Available studies have been reviewed.[116] Studies using appreciative inquiry have been done.[117][118]

Switching to a flatter organizational structure may help[119].

In the U.K. National Health Service, the Boorman report makes 20 recommendations[120] Subsequent systemic review of interventions incorporating these recommendations has found benefit on the workforce[121].

Gamification may help[122].

Best practices

In medicine, recommendations for high-performance work systems are available and include[123][124]:

  • Engaging staff
  • Acquiring and developing talent
  • Empowering the frontline. However, empowering one segment of the frontline may result in bordering another segment[125].
  • Aligning leaders
  • Employee and Organizational outcomes

Emerging, new ideas

Unionization may be able help physicians in training[126].

Surveys to solicit employee feedback

Serial surveying of employee opinion may be effective[127][128]. However, action in response to feedback is needed[129]. Thus, selective action may cause feedback to create a Matthew effect as leaders who are already successful may be disposed to act on the feedback[130].

Employees can help guide survey design[131].

Many surveys are available[132][133].

NHS Staff Surveys

The NHS Staff Surveys have been administered since 2003 in England. In Scottland, the NHS-Scottland also fields surveys[134] .

Contents
Workforce states

Burnout is not measured with Maslach's survey[135]. A proxy question for the emotional exhaustion component is available:

  • "During the last 12 months have you felt unwell as a result of work related stress."

Job satisfaction is not measured directly, but a proxy question is available:

  • "I would recommend my organisation as a place to work."

Engagement, using three items from the UWES-9[136], has been measured since 2012:

  • Vigor/vitality: "I look forward to going to work."
  • Dedication: "I am enthusiastic about my job."
  • Absorption: "Time passes quickly when I am working."

Thriving is not available although a validated scale is available[18]. The Staff Surveys has one related question:

  • "The team I work in often meets to discuss the team’s effectiveness."
Leadership tactics

Empowerment, using questions similar to Spreitzer's Measuring Empowerment survey which measures[137]:

  • Meaningfulness or purpose
    • Not directly asked. Related question is "The opportunities I have to use my skills."
  • Competence or efficacy
    • "I am able to do my job to a standard I am personally pleased with."
  • Self-determination
    • "I have a choice in deciding how to do my work."
    • "There are frequent opportunities for me to show initiative in my role."
  • Impact
    • "I am able to make improvements happen in my area of work." and other, similar questions

Complexity leadership theory is partly measured although not using validated items from scales for complexity leadership theory (information gathering and information using)[138][139] and validated items from reciprocal learning[25][140][141] and Relational Coordination Scale[140].

  • Generative (information gathering)
    • "Is patient / service user experience feedback collected within your directorate / department?"
    • "I receive regular updates on patient / service user experience feedback in my directorate / department"
  • Administrative (information using)
    • "The team I work in often meets to discuss the team’s effectiveness."
    • "When errors, near misses or incidents are reported, my organisation takes action to ensure that they do not happen again."
    • "Feedback from patients / service users is used to make informed decisions within my directorate / department"
    • "I am confident that my organisation would address my concern" and similar questions

Public reporting and reporting of workforce state to external stakeholders

This may include public reporting.

Public reporting has been used to try to improve organizational culture.[142][143] Recommendations for how to report have been proposed.[144][145]

Environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG)

Environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) was defined in 2004 by U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan[146]. The "S" includes workforce.

The organizations CDP, CDSB, GRI, IIRC and SASB may start collaborating iva the Impact Management Project of the World Economic Forum and Deloitte[147]

Another collaboration is the recent creation of the [International Sustainability Standards Board] (ISSB) within the IFRS Foundation[148].

Groups striving to implement these goals:

The IIRC and SASB merged in 2021 to form the Value Reporting Foundation[150].

ESG ratings, when not conflicting, predict future ESG activity[151].

Concerns have been made about the need to improve the quality of reporting to increase impact[152][153].

'Comply or explain' may be an option for implementing ESG reporting[154].

Shareholder activism

One lever ESG reporting has is to guide proxy voting on ESG-related shareholder proposals[155].

Examples of a shareholder activism have been reported[156][157].

Human resource management

Human resource management practices are associated with hospital mortality[158][159].

Components of Human Resource Management can be divided[160]:

Technical Human Resource Management

  • Benefits and services
  • Compensation
  • Recruiting and training
  • Safety and health
  • Employee education and training
  • Retirement strategies
  • Employee/industrial relations
  • Social responsibility programs
  • EEO for females, minorities, etc.
  • Management of labor costs
  • Selection testing
  • Performance appraisal
  • Human resource information systems
  • Assessing employee attitudes

Strategic Human Rource Management

  • Teamwork
  • Employee participation and empowerment
  • Workforce planning—flexihitity and deployment
  • Workforce productivity and quality of output
  • Management and executive development
  • Succession and development planning for managers
  • Advance issue identification/strategic studies
  • Employee and manager communications
  • Work/family programs'*
High-Performance Work Practices (HPWP)

HPWPs, orginally developed by the U.S. Department of Labor[161], are human resource practices that[162][123]:

  • "increase employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs)"
  • "empower employees to leverage their KSAs for organizational benefit"
  • "increase their motivation to do so"

The following early study of HPWP have been found to affect employee outcomes (turnover and productivity) and measures of corporate financial performance[160]

Employee skills and organizational structures

  • What is the proportion of the workforce who are included in a formal information sharing program (e.g.. a newsletter)?
  • What is the proportion of the workforce whose job has been subjected to a formal job analysis?
  • What proportion of non-entry level jobs have been filled from within in recent years?
  • What is the proportion of the workforce who are administered attitude surveys on a regular basis?
  • What is the proportion of the workforce who participate in Quality of Work Life (QWL) programs, Quality Circles (QC). and/or labor-management participation teams?
  • What is the proportion of the workforce who have access to company incentive plans, profit-sharing plans, and/or gain-sharing plans?
  • What is the average number of hours of training received by a typical employee over the last 12 months?
  • What is the proportion of the workforce who have access to a formal grievance procedure and/or complaint resolution system?
  • What proportion of the workforce is administered an employment tesi prior to hiring?

Employee motivation

  • What is the proportion of the workforce whose performance appraisals are used to determine their compensation?
  • What proportion of the workforce receives formal performance appraisals?
  • Which of the following promotion decision rules do you use most often? (a) merit or performance rating alone; (b) seniority only if merit is equal; (c) seniority among employees who meet a minimum merit requirement; (d) seniority.
  • For the five positions that your firm hires most frequently, how many qualified applicants do you have per position (on average)?
Assessing employee attitudes (AHRQ)

High-Performance Work Practices have been more recently proposed by the United States [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality] (AHRQ)[163][123]. These include:

Subsystem #1: Engaging Staff

  • Conveying mission and vision
  • Information sharing
  • Employee involvement in decision-making. Defined by the AHRQ as " Practices supporting employees' ability to influence the “decisions that matter” through mechanisms such as quality circles, process project teams, management/town hall meetings, and/or suggestion systems." "2007). Employee surveying and visibly acting on survey results also fit into this practice category."[123]
  • Performance-contingent compensation

Subsystem #2: Acquiring and Developing Talent

  • Rigorous recruiting
  • Selective hiring
  • Extensive training
  • Career development

Subsystem #3: Empowering the Frontline. Defined by the AHRQ as "These practices most directly affect the ability and motivation of frontline staff, clinicians in particular, to influence the quality and safety their care team provides."

  • Employment security
  • Reduced distinctions
  • Teams/decentralized decisionmaking

Subsystem #4: Aligning Leaders. Defined by the AHRQ as "These practices influence the capabilities of the organization's leadership in running and evolving the organization as a whole."

  • Management training linked to organizational needs. Defined by the AHRQ as "Practices involving the alignment of leadership development resources with the strategic direction of the organization. Examples include use of core competency models and/or incorporation of goals to guide training, assessment, and feedback programs."
  • Succession planning
  • Performance-contingent compensation

A meta-analysis in 2006 has shown the effectiveness of HPWPs for five dimensions of organizational performance measures: [162]:

  • productivity
  • retention
  • accounting returns
  • growth
  • market returns
Joint Commission

In 2013, the Joint Commission proposed a description of reliability[164]. Their description did not address who orhow decisions are made.

High-Performance Management System (IHI)

More recently in 2016, the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) developed the High-Performance Management System (HPMS)[165][166]. Key components are:

Primary Driver P1: Drive Quality Control

  • S1: Standardization: Processes exist to help define and disseminate standard work (what to do and how to do it).
  • S2: Accountability: A process is in place to review execution of standard work.
  • S3: Visual Management: Process performance information is continuously available to synchronize staff attention and guide current activities.
  • S4: Problem Solving: Methods are available for surfacing and addressing problems that are solvable at the front line, and for developing improvement capability.
  • S5: Escalation: Frontline staff scope issues and escalate those that require management action to resolve.
  • S6: Integration: Goals, standard work, and QI project aims are integrated across organizational levels and coordinated among units and departments.

Primary Driver P2: Manage Quality Improvement

  • S7: Prioritization: Processes are established to help prioritize frontline improvement projects based on organizational goals.
  • S8: Assimilation: Improvement projects are integrated into daily work.
  • S9: Implementation: Frontline teams have support to move from QI back to QC, integrating the results of QI projects into standard processes.

Primary Driver P3: Establish a Culture of High-Performance Management

  • S10: Policy
  • S11: Feedback
  • S12: Transparency
  • S13: Trust

The IHI HPMS does not well map to antecedents of workforce engagement[84][167]:

  • Membership and safety

( Availability and mastery

  • Meaningfulness
  • Autonomy or self-determination
Evidence of effectiveness

Several studies[159][168] and systematic reviews[162][169] report effectiveness.

Hiring practices

Gender

Women may make group decision making more effective[170] and be inclined to more effective leadership styles[171].

Opt-out promotion decisions may be effective in promoting gender equality[172]. Women are less likely to self-promote in their self-assesments[173][174]

Affirmative action or quotas may have mixed effects[175].

Lean-in training may cause harm by suggesting women are responsible for reducing disparities by changing themselves rather than the system[176].

Diversity training may cause harm[177].

Teamwork promotion

Promoting teamwork in healthcare may help address burnout in studies [178][179]

Teamwork might be effective be promoting mastery and membership.

Harmful practices

Overworked managers may treat employees unfairly[180]. Daily performance appraisal may be harmful[181].

Financial incentives

Financial targets may not help motivate[182].

Pay for performance can reduce mental health of employees[183].

However, one field study found that the impact of incentives can be positive depending on the management style[184].

Employee turnover

The antecedents of the turnover of medical assistants have been systematically reviewed[185].

Organizational decision making and conflict resolution

Organizational decision making is "the process by which decisions are made in an institution or other organization". [186]

Evidence-based recommendations have been made for decisions by small groups[187]:

  • "Keep the group small when you need to make an important decision"
  • "Choose a heterogenous group over a homogenous one (most of the time)"
  • "Appoint a strategic dissenter (or even two)"
  • "Collect opinions independently"
  • "Provide a safe space to speak up"
  • "Don’t over-rely on experts"
  • "Share collective responsibility"

Consensus

Group members may overestimate the degree of consensus[188]. This may be due to difficulty in inferring the opinion of a teammember[189].

Voting

There is conflicting evidence on the role of voting; however, studies varies in whether voting was attributed or anonymous and whether postdecisional voice by the minority opinion was encouraged and recorded.

There are multiple types of voting and multivoting may be the best choice[190]:

  • "Plurality voting, where voters can only choose one option." This can be problematic when more than two options occur and a spoiler effect phenomenon occurs.
  • "Ranked-choice voting, where voters indicate their preferences from best to worst"
  • "Multivoting is where voters are given multiple votes that they can allocate across options." The number of votes to allow voters to have is suggested to be great than 𝑜(𝑜―1)/2 where 𝑜 is the number of options.

On the other hand, in a non-randomized study that did not account for baseline conflicts, voting was associated with dissatisfaction[191]. It may be likely that these teams chose to vote because of diversity of perspectives whereas teams that choose consensus had more baseline homogeneity. In addition, post-decision voice was not clearly used.

After voting on organizational procedures, postdecisional voice by the minority group can reduce negative impact on perceptions of fairness and task commitment by employees in the voting minority. [192] In the study by Hunton, postdecisional voice was solicited by asking voters "their thoughts and feelings" about the options debated. Participants were also told that their postdecisional voice was "noninstrumental" and would not change the choice[192].

Delphi technique

A Delphi technique may be more effective.

The Delphi technique involves:

  1. Identifying a research problem
  2. Completing a literature search
  3. Developing a questionnaire of statements
  4. Conducting anonymous iterative mail or e-mail questionnaire rounds
  5. Providing individual and/or group feedback between rounds
  6. Summarizing the findings

A modified Delphi had been developed by the RAND Corporation.

The technique can vary regarding the ity of participants and the number of iterations or rounds.

The Delphi Technique can be conducted online either asynchronously via email or synchronously using a software such as ExpertLens.

Key attributes of the Delphi technique are[193][194][195]:

  • Structured interactions[193] or questionnaires[194]

Goal setting

In 1954, management by objectives was proposed[196] and has been sinced criticized[197].

The structure of goals has been proposed to be[198]:

  • Specific
  • Measurable
  • Assignable
  • Realistic
  • Time-related

Having specific organizational goals helps workforce engagement[199]

Objectives and key results (OKR) was proposed as an approach in 1983[200].

Key performance indicators (KPI) is another approach that was described in 1990[201].

Objectives, goals, strategies and measures (OGSM) is another approach.

Stretch goals are inconsistently effective.[202].

There may be advantages to goals that are set by the workforce rather than management[203].

Goals developed with an outside view for reference class forecasting may avoid overly optimistic goals.[204][205]

Specific goals can create problems according to Goodhart's law.

The quality of goal setting can be measured with[206]:

  • Goal Instrument for Quality (Goal-IQ) developed in 2009. 11 items[207]
  • Goal and Action Plan Instrument for Quality (GAP-IQ) which updates the Goal-IQ. 17 items[206]

Point 11

(a) Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership.

(b) Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership.

— Deming, W. Edwards., The Essential Deming: Leadership Principles from the Father of Quality (p. 141). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 0071790225

Deming suggests limiting measurement to identifying outliers.

Organizational change and innovation

The Cochrane Collaboration, in 2011, did not find evidence of methods that can improve organizational culture[208].

A survey for Practice adaptive reserve may[209] or many not[210] predict successful organizational change. Practive adaptive reserve is negatively associated with burnout[211][210]

Many studies have examined how to promote organizational change via patient-centered medical home in primary care by large projects such as the VA PACT[212][213][214] and the American Academy of Family Physician[215]. These methods have been systematically reviewed.

Endorsement/endorsing

Endorsing ideas, especially if the endorser uses language discordant to the endorser's gender[216].

  • Female endorser: "Agentic voice (task content; assertive, confident presentation style)"
  • Male endorser: "Communal voice (relational content; polite, humble presentation style)"

Innovation

Two types:

  • Internal - adopting and adapting. Various issues affect knowledge sharing within an organization[217][218][219]. Recommendations to promote knowledge sharing are[219]:
    • "Design work in a way that encourages sharing and promotes the right type of motivation. Give stimulating work that uses brain cells and give people autonomy. Don’t overload people (which creates time pressure). Be careful when creating too many 'dependencies' between workers as it can also create pressure."
    • "Create a cooperative culture. Do not create competition through individual incentives or through labelling [sic] people as winners versus losers or publicly comparing them (for example, what messages do performance appraisals send?)."
    • "Act as a role model and share your knowledge with others. Show you trust others to make good use of the knowledge you share with them. Also make sure you use the knowledge they share with you competently and with integrity."
  • External - development

Appreciative inquiry

Appreciative inquiry was developed in 1987 by Cooperrider and Srivastva[220] Appreciative inquiry is consistent with complexity science[221].

Positive deviance

Positive deviance is consistent with complexity leadership[222][223][224] and learning health systems[225].

A positive deviance approach has been recommended to identify and disseminate best organizational practices[226][227] [228][229]Early description of this method was[226]:

  • "Develop case definitions"
  • "Identify four to six people who have achieved an unexpected good outcome despite high risk"
  • "Interview and observe these people to discover uncommon behaviours or enabling factors that could explain the good outcome"
  • "Analyse the findings to confirm that the behaviours are uncommon and accessible to those who need to adopt them"
  • "Design behaviour change activities to encourage community adoption of the new behaviours"
  • "Monitor implementation and evaluate the results"

Measuring

Overall measurement of learning and improvement can be measured with[23]:

  • "I see myself continually improving". Responses on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree).
  • "I continue to learn more as time goes by". Responses on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree).

Internal innovation due to reciprocal learning

  • "I am frequently taught new things by other people I work with". Responses scored from one (strongly agree) to five (strongly disagree).[25]

External innovation due to environmental scanning.

  • "the number of memberships in professional associations"[230]

Organizations

See also

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