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==Overview==
==Overview==
[[Lung]] has two main [[vascular]] systems that include [[Lung|pulmonary]] circulation and [[Bronchiole|bronchial]] circulation. There are multiple [[Anastomosis|anastomoses]] between [[Lung|pulmonary]] and [[Bronchial artery|bronchial arteries]]<nowiki/>which create [[Physiology|physiologic]] right to left [[Shunt (medical)|shunts]]. [[Blood]] in the hemoptysis is mostly originated from the [[Lung]]. However, it could be from the [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal system]] as well. Primary origin of the [[blood]] comes from [[Bronchial artery|bronchial arteries]]. Hemoptysis is an important [[symptom]] that has different etiologies and pathogenesis mechanisms. Hemoptysis may happen following [[infarction]] and [[ischemia]] of [[Lung|pulmonary]]<nowiki/>parenchyma and [[vascular]] engorgement with erosion. Hemoptysis may be classified according to severity into 3 groups of mild, moderate, and massive [[bleeding]]. Life-threatening causes of hemoptysis include [[pulmonary embolism]]. Common causes of hemoptysis include bronchiectasis, [[Respiratory tract infection|acute respiratory tract infections]], [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], [[bronchitis]], [[pneumonia]], [[lung cancer]], [[tuberculosis]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and [[idiopathic]].


==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==
During 129-199 A.D., Galen identified the [[Bronchial artery|bronchial arteries]] as internal [[Blood vessel|vessels]] of the [[lung]]. Leonardo da Vinci illustrated [[lung]] circulation. In the 1960s, [[Angiogram|angiography]] of the [[thoracic aorta]] and [[Bronchus|bronchial tree]] was done. In 1963, [[Angiogram|angiography]] of [[Bronchial artery|bronchial arteries]] was described by Viramonte. In 1974, Remy introduced bronchial artery [[Therapeutic embolization|embolization]](BAE) as a successful, effective, non-invasive procedure to treat hemoptysis.


==Classification==
==Classification==
Hemoptysis may be classified into several subtypes based on duration of [[Symptom|symptoms]], severity and origin of the [[bleeding]]. Based on the duration of symptoms, hemoptysis may be classified as either [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] or [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]]. Hemoptysis may be classified according to severity into 3 groups of mild, moderate, and massive [[bleeding]]. Based on the origin of [[bleeding]], hemoptysis may be classified into two groups of [[Lung|pulmonary]] vs extrapulmonary [[bleeding]].


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
[[Lung]] has two main [[vascular]] systems that include [[Lung|pulmonary]] circulation and [[Bronchiole|bronchial]] circulation. There are multiple [[Anastomosis|anastomoses]] between [[Lung|pulmonary]] and [[Bronchial artery|bronchial arteries]]<nowiki/>which create [[Physiology|physiologic]] right to left [[Shunt (medical)|shunts]]. [[Blood]] in the hemoptysis is mostly originated from the [[Lung]]. However, it could be from the [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal system]] as well. Primary origin of the [[blood]] comes from [[Bronchial artery|bronchial arteries]]. However, other sources of [[bleeding]] might be [[Pulmonary circulation|pulmonary vessels]], [[aorta]], [[intercostal]], [[Coronary circulation|coronary]], [[Chest|thoracic]], and phrenic [[Artery|arteries]]. Hemoptysis is an important [[symptom]] that has different etiologies and pathogenesis mechanisms. Hemoptysis may happen following [[infarction]] and [[ischemia]] of [[Lung|pulmonary]]<nowiki/>parenchyma as seen in [[pulmonary embolism]], [[vasculitis]], and [[Infection|infections]]. Another mechanism of hemoptysis is [[vascular]] engorgement with erosion as seen in [[bronchitis]], [[bronchiectasis]], and toxic exposure to [[cigarette]] and other [[Irritation|irritants]]. In some cases underlying cause can not be identified and they are considered as [[idiopathic]]. However, they might present with massive hemoptysis. There are multiple conditions that are associated with hemoptysis which include [[granulomatosis with polyangiitis]], [[sarcoidosis]], [[immunodeficiency]], and indoor ice hockey play.


==Causes==
==Causes==
Life-threatening causes of hemoptysis include [[pulmonary embolism]]. Common causes of hemoptysis include bronchiectasis, [[Respiratory tract infection|acute respiratory tract infections]], [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], [[bronchitis]], [[pneumonia]], [[lung cancer]], [[tuberculosis]], [[cystic fibrosis]], and [[idiopathic]]. Less common causes of hemoptysis include ruptured [[Aneurysm|aneurysms]], [[lung abscess]], [[aspergilloma]], [[idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis]], [[behçet's disease]], aortobronchial [[fistula]], pulmonary [[endometriosis]], [[goodpasture syndrome]], and [[Pulmonary aspiration|foreign body aspiration]].


==Differentiating Hereditary pancreatitis from Other Diseases==
==Differentiating Hemoptysis from Other Diseases==


==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
The [[incidence]] of hemoptysis is approximately 100 per 100,000 individuals in the outpatient setting. There is no enough data on [[prevalence]] of hemoptysis. The [[mortality rate]] of patients with massive hemoptysis is approximately 50-100%, if left untreated. During 1995-2005, in-hospital [[mortality rate]] of massive hemoptysis was 0-15%. Patients of all age groups may develop hemoptysis. There is no racial predilection to hemoptysis. Hemoptysis affects men and women equally. Hemoptysis is a [[symptom]] that might affect everyone. Underlying causes of hemoptysis might be different in developed countries than in developing countries. In the United States, [[incidence]] of [[tuberculosis]] in patients with massive hemoptysis is 7%, while in south africa it is 85%.


==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
Common risk factors in the development of hemoptysis include [[Smoking|cigarette smoking]], [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], [[anticoagulant]] medications. Risk factors in the recurrence of hemoptysis include persistent residual mild [[bleeding]] following [[bronchial artery]] [[Therapeutic embolization|embolization]], [[blood transfusion]] before the [[Surgery|procedure]], and [[Aspergillosis|aspergilloma]]. Less common risk factors in the development of hemoptysis include [[congestive heart failure]] and [[mitral regurgitation]].


==Screening==
==Screening==
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for hemoptysis.


==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
 
Hemoptysis is an important [[symptom]] that indicates an underlying [[Lung|pulmonary]] or extrapulmonary causes. Hemoptysis usually happens following [[bronchitis]] as an acute [[symptom]]<nowiki/>and it resolves spontaneously or with [[antibiotic]] therapy within a week. Watchful observation in a patient with hemoptysis and normal [[Chest X-ray|chest x-ray]] is recommended. However, persistent and massive hemoptysis requires further investigations. [[Asphyxia]] and [[airway obstruction]] are common after massive hemoptysis. [[Prognosis]] of hemoptysis is generally excellent. However, massive hemoptysis has a poor [[prognosis]] and the [[mortality rate]] of patients with hemoptysis is approximately 50-100%, if left untreated.


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
===Diagnostic Criteria===
===Diagnostic Study of Choice===
The initial diagnostic study in a patient with hemoptysis is [[Chest X-ray|chest x-ray]]. If diagnosis is not found on [[Chest X-ray|chest x-ray]], the next step is to perform [[High Resolution CT|high resolution CT scan]] or [[bronchoscopy]]. [[High Resolution CT|HRCT]] is better for diagnosis of [[bronchiectasis]] or [[Lung cancer|lung carcinoma]]. Flexible [[bronchoscopy]] is better for diagnosis of [[Mucous membrane|mucosal]] abnormalities such as [[bronchitis]], Dieulafoy disease or [[Kaposi's sarcoma|kaposi sarcoma]].


===History and Symptoms===
===History and Symptoms===
Patients with hemoptysis may have a positive history of [[upper respiratory tract infection]], [[Digestive disease|gastrointestinal disease]], exposure to patients with [[tuberculosis]], [[Coagulopathy|bleeding disorders]], [[Medication|medications]] ([[Anticoagulant|anticoagulants]]), and [[Smoking|cigarette smoking]]. Common symptoms of hemoptysis include bloody [[sputum]], chronic [[cough]], [[Dyspnea|shortness of breath]], [[Pleurisy|pleuritic chest pain]], and [[Wheeze|wheezing]]. Less common symptoms of hemoptysis depends on the etiology include [[weight loss]], change in [[cough]], [[fatigue]].


===Physical Examination===
===Physical Examination===
Physical examination of patients with hemoptysis might be normal. However, patients might show different findings depend on underlying causes. Patients with hemoptysis usually appear anxious and depend on the severity of [[bleeding]] they might be critically ill. Patients with hemoptysis usually have abnormal [[vital signs]] indicating [[dehydration]], other signs of [[mucosal bleeding]], purulent bloody [[sputum]], and abnormal [[Respiratory examination|lung exam]] indicating underlying [[Lung|pulmonary]] causes.


===Laboratory Findings===
===Laboratory Findings===
There are [[Medical laboratory|laboratory]] tests that are helpful for [[diagnosis]] the underlying cause of hemoptysis. [[Sputum]] must be evaluated for the [[Cell biology|cytology]], [[Gram staining|gram stain]], culture, and [[Acid-fast|acid-fast stain]]. [[Arterial blood gases]] might show [[Hypoxemia|hypoxia]]. [[Complete blood count]] ([[CBC]]) might show elevated [[White blood cells|WBC]], low [[platelet]], and anemia. Signs of [[dehydration]] might be detected in [[Medical laboratory|laboratory]]<nowiki/>tests such as [[Blood urea nitrogen|BUN]], [[Creatinine|Cr]], [[Urine|urinalysis]], or [[Electrolyte disturbance|electrolytes]]. [[Coagulation]] studies might be abnormal.


===Electrocardiogram===
===Electrocardiogram===
There are no [[electrocardiogram]] findings associated with hemoptysis. However, [[electrocardiogram]] might be abnormal with some of the underlying causes of hemoptysis.


===X-ray===
===X-ray===
[[Chest X-ray|Chest x-ray]] is the first [[Diagnostic imaging|diagnostic modality]] that is used in a patient with hemoptysis. [[Chest X-ray|Chest x-ray]] might differentiate underlying causes of hemoptysis. [[Chest X-ray|Chest x-ray]] is usually used to compare with previous or later [[Imaging|imagings]] in order to evaluate the progression and resolution of the underlying cause. However, [[Chest X-ray|chest x-ray]] might be completely normal in patients with hemoptysis.


===Ultrasound===
===Echocardiography and Ultrasound===
There are no [[echocardiography]]/[[ultrasound]] findings associated with hemoptysis. However, [[echocardiography]] or [[ultrasound]] might be abnormal with some of the underlying causes of hemoptysis.


===CT scan===
===CT scan===
[[Chest]] [[Computed tomography|CT scan]] and [[CT angiography]] may be helpful in the evaluation of a patient with hemoptysis. It is useful for assessing the cause of hemoptysis, localizing the origin of the [[blood]], providing [[Prognosis|prognostic]] information by correlating between the extent of lobar involvement on [[Computed tomography|high-resolution CT]] and the amount of [[bleeding]], and assisting the [[Interventional radiology|interventional radiologist]] prior to treatment. [[Computed tomography|CT scan]] is not helpful in unstable patients, patients with active [[bleeding]] who require [[bronchoscopy]] intervention, and patients with bilateral lung abnormalities.


===MRI===
===MRI===
[[Chest]] [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] may be helpful in the diagnosis of underlying causes of hemoptysis.


===Other Imaging Findings===
===Other Imaging Findings===
Other [[Imaging studies|imaging]] findings may be helpful in the diagnosis of underlying causes of hemoptysis.


===Other Diagnostic Studies===
===Other Diagnostic Studies===
[[Bronchoscopy|Rigid bronchoscopy]] may be helpful in the differentiating underlying etiologies of hemoptysis, localizing the [[bleeding]] site, identifying [[lung cancer]], and even treatment of the underlying cause of hemoptysis in case of visible endoluminal lesions. Other diagnostic studies for localizing the site of bleeding in a patient with hemoptysis include [[Angiogram|angiography]]<nowiki/>and [[aortography]].


==Treatment==
==Treatment==
===Medical Therapy===
===Medical Therapy===
Hemoptysis is a symptom that indicates an underlying [[Lung|pulmonary]] or extrapulmonary cause. Pharmacologic medical therapy depends on an underlying cause. However, the mainstay of treatment for massive hemoptysis is supportive and [[Surgery|surgical therapy]].


===Surgery===
===Surgery===
Massive hemoptysis is a life-threatening condition and requires prompt [[intensive care]]. Surgery is indicated in patients with hemoptysis who are resistant to [[Therapeutic embolization|embolization]]. Interventional techniques are used to stop [[bleeding]] which include bronchial arterial [[Therapeutic embolization|embolization]], different [[Bronchoscopy|bronchoscopic]] strategies such as cold [[Saline (medicine)|saline]] lavage, topical [[vasoconstrictor]] agents, [[balloon tamponade]], endobronchial [[stent]] placement, endobronchial spigot, oxidized regenerated [[cellulose]], [[Cyanoacrylate|N-Butyl cyanoacrylate glue]], [[fibrinogen]][[thrombin]], [[tranexamic acid]], [[laser photocoagulation]], [[argon plasma coagulation]], and [[Cauterization|electrocautery]]. Surgical techniques that are used for management of hemoptysis include [[Pneumonectomy|pulmonary resection]], [[lobectomy]], and bilobectomy. Surgical techniques are definitely curative, effective for localized lesions. However, surgery has a [[mortality rate]] of 10-30%. Currently, bronchial arterial [[Therapeutic embolization|embolization]] considered as a first line therapy for both new and recurrent hemoptysis.


===Primary Prevention===
===Primary Prevention===
Effective measures for the primary prevention of hemoptysis include [[smoking cessation]], avoiding [[Pollutant|air pollutants]], and use of physical barriers such as masks and gown.


===Secondary Prevention===
===Secondary Prevention===
There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of hemoptysis.


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]
[[Category:Primary care]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]

Revision as of 13:59, 28 February 2018

Hemoptysis Microchapters

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Overview

Historical Perspective

Classification

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Hemoptysis from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-Ray

Echocardiography and Ultrasound

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sadaf Sharfaei M.D.[2]

Overview

Lung has two main vascular systems that include pulmonary circulation and bronchial circulation. There are multiple anastomoses between pulmonary and bronchial arterieswhich create physiologic right to left shuntsBlood in the hemoptysis is mostly originated from the Lung. However, it could be from the gastrointestinal system as well. Primary origin of the blood comes from bronchial arteries. Hemoptysis is an important symptom that has different etiologies and pathogenesis mechanisms. Hemoptysis may happen following infarction and ischemia of pulmonaryparenchyma and vascular engorgement with erosion. Hemoptysis may be classified according to severity into 3 groups of mild, moderate, and massive bleeding. Life-threatening causes of hemoptysis include pulmonary embolism. Common causes of hemoptysis include bronchiectasis, acute respiratory tract infectionschronic obstructive pulmonary diseasebronchitispneumonialung cancertuberculosiscystic fibrosis, and idiopathic.

Historical Perspective

During 129-199 A.D., Galen identified the bronchial arteries as internal vessels of the lung. Leonardo da Vinci illustrated lung circulation. In the 1960s, angiography of the thoracic aorta and bronchial tree was done. In 1963, angiography of bronchial arteries was described by Viramonte. In 1974, Remy introduced bronchial artery embolization(BAE) as a successful, effective, non-invasive procedure to treat hemoptysis.

Classification

Hemoptysis may be classified into several subtypes based on duration of symptoms, severity and origin of the bleeding. Based on the duration of symptoms, hemoptysis may be classified as either acute or chronic. Hemoptysis may be classified according to severity into 3 groups of mild, moderate, and massive bleeding. Based on the origin of bleeding, hemoptysis may be classified into two groups of pulmonary vs extrapulmonary bleeding.

Pathophysiology

Lung has two main vascular systems that include pulmonary circulation and bronchial circulation. There are multiple anastomoses between pulmonary and bronchial arterieswhich create physiologic right to left shuntsBlood in the hemoptysis is mostly originated from the Lung. However, it could be from the gastrointestinal system as well. Primary origin of the blood comes from bronchial arteries. However, other sources of bleeding might be pulmonary vesselsaortaintercostalcoronarythoracic, and phrenic arteries. Hemoptysis is an important symptom that has different etiologies and pathogenesis mechanisms. Hemoptysis may happen following infarction and ischemia of pulmonaryparenchyma as seen in pulmonary embolismvasculitis, and infections. Another mechanism of hemoptysis is vascular engorgement with erosion as seen in bronchitisbronchiectasis, and toxic exposure to cigarette and other irritants. In some cases underlying cause can not be identified and they are considered as idiopathic. However, they might present with massive hemoptysis. There are multiple conditions that are associated with hemoptysis which include granulomatosis with polyangiitissarcoidosisimmunodeficiency, and indoor ice hockey play.

Causes

Life-threatening causes of hemoptysis include pulmonary embolism. Common causes of hemoptysis include bronchiectasis, acute respiratory tract infectionschronic obstructive pulmonary diseasebronchitispneumonialung cancertuberculosiscystic fibrosis, and idiopathic. Less common causes of hemoptysis include ruptured aneurysmslung abscessaspergillomaidiopathic pulmonary fibrosisbehçet's disease, aortobronchial fistula, pulmonary endometriosisgoodpasture syndrome, and foreign body aspiration.

Differentiating Hemoptysis from Other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

The incidence of hemoptysis is approximately 100 per 100,000 individuals in the outpatient setting. There is no enough data on prevalence of hemoptysis. The mortality rate of patients with massive hemoptysis is approximately 50-100%, if left untreated. During 1995-2005, in-hospital mortality rate of massive hemoptysis was 0-15%. Patients of all age groups may develop hemoptysis. There is no racial predilection to hemoptysis. Hemoptysis affects men and women equally. Hemoptysis is a symptom that might affect everyone. Underlying causes of hemoptysis might be different in developed countries than in developing countries. In the United States, incidence of tuberculosis in patients with massive hemoptysis is 7%, while in south africa it is 85%.

Risk Factors

Common risk factors in the development of hemoptysis include cigarette smokingchronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseanticoagulant medications. Risk factors in the recurrence of hemoptysis include persistent residual mild bleeding following bronchial artery embolizationblood transfusion before the procedure, and aspergilloma. Less common risk factors in the development of hemoptysis include congestive heart failure and mitral regurgitation.

Screening

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for hemoptysis.

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

Hemoptysis is an important symptom that indicates an underlying pulmonary or extrapulmonary causes. Hemoptysis usually happens following bronchitis as an acute symptomand it resolves spontaneously or with antibiotic therapy within a week. Watchful observation in a patient with hemoptysis and normal chest x-ray is recommended. However, persistent and massive hemoptysis requires further investigations. Asphyxia and airway obstruction are common after massive hemoptysis. Prognosis of hemoptysis is generally excellent. However, massive hemoptysis has a poor prognosis and the mortality rate of patients with hemoptysis is approximately 50-100%, if left untreated.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

The initial diagnostic study in a patient with hemoptysis is chest x-ray. If diagnosis is not found on chest x-ray, the next step is to perform high resolution CT scan or bronchoscopyHRCT is better for diagnosis of bronchiectasis or lung carcinoma. Flexible bronchoscopy is better for diagnosis of mucosal abnormalities such as bronchitis, Dieulafoy disease or kaposi sarcoma.

History and Symptoms

Patients with hemoptysis may have a positive history of upper respiratory tract infectiongastrointestinal disease, exposure to patients with tuberculosisbleeding disordersmedications (anticoagulants), and cigarette smoking. Common symptoms of hemoptysis include bloody sputum, chronic coughshortness of breathpleuritic chest pain, and wheezing. Less common symptoms of hemoptysis depends on the etiology include weight loss, change in coughfatigue.

Physical Examination

Physical examination of patients with hemoptysis might be normal. However, patients might show different findings depend on underlying causes. Patients with hemoptysis usually appear anxious and depend on the severity of bleeding they might be critically ill. Patients with hemoptysis usually have abnormal vital signs indicating dehydration, other signs of mucosal bleeding, purulent bloody sputum, and abnormal lung exam indicating underlying pulmonary causes.

Laboratory Findings

There are laboratory tests that are helpful for diagnosis the underlying cause of hemoptysis. Sputum must be evaluated for the cytologygram stain, culture, and acid-fast stainArterial blood gases might show hypoxiaComplete blood count (CBC) might show elevated WBC, low platelet, and anemia. Signs of dehydration might be detected in laboratorytests such as BUNCrurinalysis, or electrolytesCoagulation studies might be abnormal.

Electrocardiogram

There are no electrocardiogram findings associated with hemoptysis. However, electrocardiogram might be abnormal with some of the underlying causes of hemoptysis.

X-ray

Chest x-ray is the first diagnostic modality that is used in a patient with hemoptysis. Chest x-ray might differentiate underlying causes of hemoptysis. Chest x-ray is usually used to compare with previous or later imagings in order to evaluate the progression and resolution of the underlying cause. However, chest x-ray might be completely normal in patients with hemoptysis.

Echocardiography and Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with hemoptysis. However, echocardiography or ultrasound might be abnormal with some of the underlying causes of hemoptysis.

CT scan

Chest CT scan and CT angiography may be helpful in the evaluation of a patient with hemoptysis. It is useful for assessing the cause of hemoptysis, localizing the origin of the blood, providing prognostic information by correlating between the extent of lobar involvement on high-resolution CT and the amount of bleeding, and assisting the interventional radiologist prior to treatment. CT scan is not helpful in unstable patients, patients with active bleeding who require bronchoscopy intervention, and patients with bilateral lung abnormalities.

MRI

Chest MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of underlying causes of hemoptysis.

Other Imaging Findings

Other imaging findings may be helpful in the diagnosis of underlying causes of hemoptysis.

Other Diagnostic Studies

Rigid bronchoscopy may be helpful in the differentiating underlying etiologies of hemoptysis, localizing the bleeding site, identifying lung cancer, and even treatment of the underlying cause of hemoptysis in case of visible endoluminal lesions. Other diagnostic studies for localizing the site of bleeding in a patient with hemoptysis include angiographyand aortography.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Hemoptysis is a symptom that indicates an underlying pulmonary or extrapulmonary cause. Pharmacologic medical therapy depends on an underlying cause. However, the mainstay of treatment for massive hemoptysis is supportive and surgical therapy.

Surgery

Massive hemoptysis is a life-threatening condition and requires prompt intensive care. Surgery is indicated in patients with hemoptysis who are resistant to embolization. Interventional techniques are used to stop bleeding which include bronchial arterial embolization, different bronchoscopic strategies such as cold saline lavage, topical vasoconstrictor agents, balloon tamponade, endobronchial stent placement, endobronchial spigot, oxidized regenerated celluloseN-Butyl cyanoacrylate gluefibrinogenthrombintranexamic acidlaser photocoagulationargon plasma coagulation, and electrocautery. Surgical techniques that are used for management of hemoptysis include pulmonary resectionlobectomy, and bilobectomy. Surgical techniques are definitely curative, effective for localized lesions. However, surgery has a mortality rate of 10-30%. Currently, bronchial arterial embolization considered as a first line therapy for both new and recurrent hemoptysis.

Primary Prevention

Effective measures for the primary prevention of hemoptysis include smoking cessation, avoiding air pollutants, and use of physical barriers such as masks and gown.

Secondary Prevention

There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of hemoptysis.

References