Dextroamphetamine

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Dextroamphetamine
Black Box Warning
Adult Indications & Dosage
Pediatric Indications & Dosage
Contraindications
Warnings & Precautions
Adverse Reactions
Drug Interactions
Use in Specific Populations
Administration & Monitoring
Overdosage
Pharmacology
Clinical Studies
How Supplied
Images
Patient Counseling Information
Precautions with Alcohol
Brand Names
Look-Alike Names

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Ammu Susheela, M.D. [2]

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Black Box Warning

WARNING
See full prescribing information for complete Boxed Warning.
* AMPHETAMINES HAVE A HIGH POTENTIAL FOR ABUSE. ADMINISTRATION OF AMPHETAMINES FOR PROLONGED PERIODS OF TIME MAY LEAD TO DRUG DEPENDENCE AND MUST BE AVOIDED.
  • PARTICULAR ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO THE POSSIBILITY OF SUBJECTS OBTAINING AMPHETAMINES FOR NON-THERAPEUTIC USE OR DISTRIBUTION TO OTHERS, AND THE DRUGS SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED OR DISPENSED SPARINGLY.
  • MISUSE OF AMPHETAMINES MAY CAUSE SUDDEN DEATH AND SERIOUS CARDIOVASCULAR ADVERSE EVENTS.

Overview

Dextroamphetamine is a amphetamine that is FDA approved for the treatment of narcolepsy, attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. There is a Black Box Warning for this drug as shown here. Common adverse reactions include increased heart rate, myocardial infarction, peripheral vascular disease, raynaud's disease, sudden cardiac death, decreased body growth, cerebrovascular accident, intracranial hemorrhage, lowered convulsive threshold, aggressive behavior, psychotic disorder.

Adult Indications and Dosage

FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)

  • Narcolepsy.
  • Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity
  • As an integral part of a total treatment program which typically includes other remedial measures (psychological, educational, social) for a stabilizing effect in pediatric patients (ages 3 to 16 years) with a behavioral syndrome characterized by the following group of developmentally inappropriate symptoms: moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability, and impulsivity.
  • The diagnosis of this syndrome should not be made with finality when these symptoms are only of comparatively recent origin. Nonlocalizing (soft) neurological signs, learning disability, and abnormal EEG may or may not be present, and a diagnosis of central nervous system dysfunction may or may not be warranted.

Amphetamines should be administered at the lowest effective dosage and dosage should be individually adjusted. Late evening doses should be avoided because of the resulting insomnia.

Narcolepsy
  • Usual dose is 5 to 60 mg per day in divided doses, depending on the individual patient response.
  • Narcolepsy seldom occurs in pediatric patients under 12 years of age; however, when it does, DEXEDRINE tablets may be used. The suggested initial dose for patients aged 6 to 12 is 5 mg daily; daily dose may be raised in increments of 5 mg at weekly intervals until optimal response is obtained. In patients 12 years of age and older, start with 10 mg daily, daily dosage may be raised in increments of 10 mg at weekly intervals until an optimal response is obtained.
  • If bothersome adverse reactions appear (e.g., insomnia or anorexia), dosage should be reduced. Give first dose on awakening: additional doses (1 or 2) at intervals of 4 to 6 hours.
Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity
  • Not recommended for pediatric patients under 3 years of age.

Off-Label Use and Dosage (Adult)

Guideline-Supported Use

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Guideline-Supported Use of Dextroamphetamine in adult patients.

Non–Guideline-Supported Use

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use of Dextroamphetamine in adult patients.

Pediatric Indications and Dosage

FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric)

  • In pediatric patients from 3 to 5 years of age, start with 2.5 mg daily, by tablet; daily dosage may be raised in increments of 2.5 mg at weekly intervals until optimal response is obtained.
  • In pediatric patients 6 years of age and older, start with 5 mg once or twice daily; daily dosage may be raised in increments of 5 mg at weekly intervals until optimal response is obtained. Only in rare cases will it be necessary to exceed a total of 40 mg per day.
  • Give first dose on awakening: additional doses (1 or 2) at intervals of 4 to 6 hours.
  • Where possible, drug administration should be interrupted occasionally to determine if there is a recurrence of behavioral symptoms sufficient to require continued therapy.

Off-Label Use and Dosage (Pediatric)

Guideline-Supported Use

Condition1
  • Developed by:
  • Class of Recommendation:
  • Strength of Evidence:
  • Dosing Information
  • Dosage
Condition2

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Guideline-Supported Use of Dextroamphetamine in pediatric patients.

Non–Guideline-Supported Use

Condition1
  • Dosing Information
  • Dosage
Condition2

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use of Dextroamphetamine in pediatric patients.

Contraindications

  • Advanced arteriosclerosis, symptomatic cardiovascular disease, moderate to severe hypertension, hyperthyroidism, known hypersensitivity or idiosyncrasy to the sympathomimetic amines, glaucoma.
Agitated states
  • Patients with a history of drug abuse.
  • During or within 14 days following the administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (hypertensive crises may result).

Warnings

WARNING
See full prescribing information for complete Boxed Warning.
* AMPHETAMINES HAVE A HIGH POTENTIAL FOR ABUSE. ADMINISTRATION OF AMPHETAMINES FOR PROLONGED PERIODS OF TIME MAY LEAD TO DRUG DEPENDENCE AND MUST BE AVOIDED.
  • PARTICULAR ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO THE POSSIBILITY OF SUBJECTS OBTAINING AMPHETAMINES FOR NON-THERAPEUTIC USE OR DISTRIBUTION TO OTHERS, AND THE DRUGS SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED OR DISPENSED SPARINGLY.
  • MISUSE OF AMPHETAMINES MAY CAUSE SUDDEN DEATH AND SERIOUS CARDIOVASCULAR ADVERSE EVENTS.
Serious Cardiovascular Events
  • Sudden Death in Patients with Pre-existing Structural Cardiac Abnormalities or Other Serious Heart Problems
Children and Adolescents
  • Sudden death has been reported in association with CNS stimulant treatment at usual doses in children and adolescents with structural cardiac abnormalities or other serious heart problems.
  • Although some serious heart problems alone carry an increased risk of sudden death, stimulant products generally should not be used in children or adolescents with known serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, or other serious cardiac problems that may place them at increased vulnerability to the sympathomimetic effects of a stimulant drug.
Adults
  • Sudden deaths, stroke, and myocardial infarction have been reported in adults taking stimulant drugs at usual doses for ADHD. * Although the role of stimulants in these adult cases is also unknown, adults have a greater likelihood than children of having serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, coronary artery disease, or other serious cardiac problems.
  • Adults with such abnormalities should also generally not be treated with stimulant drugs.
Hypertension and other Cardiovascular Conditions
  • Stimulant medications cause a modest increase in average blood pressure (about 2 to 4 mmHg) and average heart rate (about 3 to 6 bpm), and individuals may have larger increases. While the mean changes alone would not be expected to have short-term consequences, all patients should be monitored for larger changes in heart rate and blood pressure.
  • Caution is indicated in treating patients whose underlying medical conditions might be compromised by increases in blood pressure or heart rate, e.g., those with pre-existing hypertension, heart failure, recent myocardial infarction, or ventricular arrhythmia.
Assessing Cardiovascular Status in Patients being Treated with Stimulant Medications
  • Children, adolescents, or adults who are being considered for treatment with stimulant medications should have a careful history (including assessment for a family history of sudden death or ventricular arrhythmia) and physical exam to assess for the presence of cardiac disease, and should receive further cardiac evaluation if findings suggest such disease (e.g. electrocardiogram and echocardiogram).
  • Patients who develop symptoms such as exertional chest pain, unexplained syncope, or other symptoms suggestive of cardiac disease during stimulant treatment should undergo a prompt cardiac evaluation.
Psychiatric Adverse Events
Pre-Existing Psychosis
  • Administration of stimulants may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder in patients with pre-existing psychotic disorder.
Bipolar Illness
  • Particular care should be taken in using stimulants to treat ADHD patients with comorbid bipolar disorder because of concern for possible induction of mixed/manic episode in such patients. Prior to initiating treatment with a stimulant, patients with comorbid depressive symptoms should be adequately screened to determine if they are at risk for bipolar disorder; such screening should include a detailed psychiatric history, including a family history of suicide, bipolar disorder, and depression.
Emergence of New Psychotic or Manic Symptoms
  • Treatment emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without a prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses.
  • If such symptoms occur, consideration should be given to a possible causal role of the stimulant, and discontinuation of treatment may be appropriate. In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo-controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (4 patients with events out of 3,482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients.
Aggression
  • Aggressive behavior or hostility is often observed in children and adolescents with ADHD, and has been reported in clinical trials and the postmarketing experience of some medications indicated for the treatment of ADHD. Although there is no systematic evidence that stimulants cause aggressive behavior or hostility, patients beginning treatment for ADHD should be monitored for the appearance of, or worsening of, aggressive behavior or hostility.
Long-Term Suppression of Growth
  • Careful follow-up of weight and height in children ages 7 to 10 years who were randomized to either methylphenidate or non-medication treatment groups over 14 months, as well as in naturalistic subgroups of newly methylphenidate-treated and non-medication treated children over 36 months (to the ages of 10 to 13 years), suggests that consistently medicated children (i.e., treatment for 7 days per week throughout the year) have a temporary slowing in growth rate (on average, a total of about 2 cm less growth in height and 2.7 kg less growth in weight over 3 years), without evidence of growth rebound during this period of development.
  • Published data are inadequate to determine whether chronic use of amphetamines may cause a similar suppression of growth, however, it is anticipated that they likely have this effect as well. Therefore, growth should be monitored during treatment with stimulants, and patients who are not growing or gaining height or weight as expected may need to have their treatment interrupted.
Seizures
  • There is some clinical evidence that stimulants may lower the convulsive threshold in patients with prior history of seizures, in patients with prior EEG abnormalities in absence of seizures, and, very rarely, in patients without a history of seizures and no prior EEG evidence of seizures. In the presence of seizures, the drug should be discontinued.
Peripheral Vasculopathy, including Raynaud’s phenomenon
  • Stimulants, including DEXEDRINE tablets, used to treat ADHD are associated with peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud’s phenomenon. Signs and symptoms are usually intermittent and mild; however, very rare sequelae include digital ulceration and/or soft tissue breakdown. Effects of peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud’s phenomenon, were observed in post-marketing reports at different times and at therapeutic doses in all age groups throughout the course of treatment.
  • Signs and symptoms generally improve after reduction in dose or discontinuation of drug. Careful observation for digital changes is necessary during treatment with ADHD stimulants. Further clinical evaluation (e.g., rheumatology referral) may be appropriate for certain patients.
Visual Disturbance
  • Difficulties with accommodation and blurring of vision have been reported with stimulant treatment.

Adverse Reactions

Clinical Trials Experience

  • Cardiovascular: Palpitations, tachycardia, elevation of blood pressure. There have been isolated reports of cardiomyopathy associated with chronic amphetamine use.
  • Central Nervous System: Psychotic episodes at recommended doses (rare), overstimulation, restlessness, dizziness, insomnia, euphoria, dyskinesia, dysphoria, tremor, headache, exacerbation of motor and phonic tics and Tourette's syndrome.
  • Gastrointestinal: Dryness of the mouth, unpleasant taste, diarrhea, constipation, other gastrointestinal disturbances. Anorexia and weight loss may occur as undesirable effects.
  • Allergic: Urticaria.
  • Endocrine: Impotence, changes in libido.

Postmarketing Experience

There is limited information regarding Postmarketing Experience of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

Body as a Whole
Cardiovascular
Digestive
Endocrine
Hematologic and Lymphatic
Metabolic and Nutritional
Musculoskeletal
Neurologic
Respiratory
Skin and Hypersensitivy Reactions
Special Senses
Urogenital
Miscellaneous

Drug Interactions

  • Acidifying agents
  • Gastro-intestinal acidifying agents (guanethidine, reserpine, glutamic acid HCl, ascorbic acid, fruit juices, etc.) lower absorption of amphetamines.
  • Urinary acidifying agents (ammonium chloride, sodium acid phosphate, etc.) increase the concentration of the ionized species of the amphetamine molecule, thereby increasing urinary excretion. Both groups of agents lower blood levels and efficacy of amphetamines.
  • Adrenergic blockers
  • Adrenergic blockers are inhibited by amphetamines.
  • Alkalinizing agents
  • Gastro-intestinal alkalinizing agents (sodium bicarbonate, etc.) increase absorption of amphetamines. Urinary alkalinizing agents (acetazolamide, some thiazides) increase the concentration of the non-ionized species of the amphetamine molecule, thereby decreasing urinary excretion. Both groups of agents increase blood levels and therefore potentiate the actions of amphetamines.
  • Antidepressants, tricyclic - Amphetamines may enhance the activity of tricyclic or sympathomimetic agents; d-amphetamine with desipramine or protriptyline and possibly other tricyclics cause striking and sustained increases in the concentration of d-amphetamine in the brain; cardiovascular effects can be potentiated.
  • MAO inhibitors
  • MAOI antidepressants, as well as a metabolite of furazolidone, slow amphetamine metabolism. This slowing potentiates amphetamines, increasing their effect on the release of norepinephrine and other monoamines from adrenergic nerve endings; this can cause headaches and other signs of hypertensive crisis. A variety of neurological toxic effects and malignant hyperpyrexia can occur, sometimes with fatal results.
  • Antihistamines
  • Amphetamines may counteract the sedative effect of antihistamines.
  • Antihypertensives
  • Amphetamines may antagonize the hypotensive effects of antihypertensives.
  • Chlorpromazine
  • Chlorpromazine blocks dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake, thus inhibiting the central stimulant effects of amphetamines, and can be used to treat amphetamine poisoning.
  • Ethosuximide
  • Amphetamines may delay intestinal absorption of ethosuximide.
  • Haloperidol
  • Haloperidol blocks dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake, thus inhibiting the central stimulant effects of amphetamines.
  • Lithium carbonate -The stimulatory effects of amphetamines may be inhibited by lithium carbonate.
  • Meperidine - Amphetamines potentiate the analgesic effect of meperidine.
  • Methenamine therapy - Urinary excretion of amphetamines is increased, and efficacy is reduced, by acidifying agents used in methenamine therapy.
  • Norepinephrine - Amphetamines enhance the adrenergic effect of norepinephrine.
  • Phenobarbital - Amphetamines may delay intestinal absorption of phenobarbital; co-administration of phenobarbital may produce a synergistic anticonvulsant action.
  • Phenytoin - Amphetamines may delay intestinal absorption of phenytoin; co-administration of phenytoin may produce a synergistic anticonvulsant action.
  • Propoxyphene - In cases of propoxyphene overdosage, amphetamine CNS stimulation is potentiated and fatal convulsions can occur.
  • Veratrum alkaloids - Amphetamines inhibit the hypotensive effect of veratrum alkaloids.

Use in Specific Populations

Pregnancy

Pregnancy Category (FDA): C

  • Pregnancy Category C.
  • DEXEDRINE tablets have been shown to have embryotoxic and teratogenic effects when administered to A/Jax mice and C57BL mice in doses approximately 41 times the maximum human dose.
  • Embryotoxic effects were not seen in New Zealand white rabbits given the drug in doses 7 times the human dose nor in rats given 12.5 times the maximum human dose. While there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women, there has been one report of severe congenital bony deformity, tracheo-esophageal fistula, and anal atresia (Vater association) in a baby born to a woman who took dextroamphetamine sulfate with lovastatin during the first trimester of pregnancy.
  • DEXEDRINE tablets should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.


Pregnancy Category (AUS):

  • Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) Pregnancy Category

There is no Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) guidance on usage of Dextroamphetamine in women who are pregnant.

Labor and Delivery

There is no FDA guidance on use of Dextroamphetamine during labor and delivery.

Nursing Mothers

  • Amphetamines are excreted in human milk. Mothers taking amphetamines should be advised to refrain from nursing.

Pediatric Use

  • Long-term effects of amphetamines in pediatric patients have not been well established. Amphetamines are not recommended for use in pediatric patients under 3 years of age with Attention Deficit.
  • Clinical experience suggests that in psychotic pediatric patients, administration of amphetamines may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder.
  • Amphetamines have been reported to exacerbate motor and phonic tics and Tourette's syndrome. Therefore, clinical evaluation for tics and Tourette's syndrome in pediatric patients and their families should precede use of stimulant medications.
  • Data are inadequate to determine whether chronic administration of amphetamines may be associated with growth inhibition; therefore, growth should be monitored during treatment.
  • Drug treatment is not indicated in all cases of Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity and should be considered only in light of the complete history and evaluation of the pediatric patient.
  • The decision to prescribe amphetamines should depend on the physician's assessment of the chronicity and severity of the pediatric patient's symptoms and their appropriateness for his/her age. Prescription should not depend solely on the presence of one or more of the behavioral characteristics.
  • When these symptoms are associated with acute stress reactions, treatment with amphetamines is usually not indicated.

Geriatic Use

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Dextroamphetamine with respect to geriatric patients.

Gender

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Dextroamphetamine with respect to specific gender populations.

Race

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Dextroamphetamine with respect to specific racial populations.

Renal Impairment

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Dextroamphetamine in patients with renal impairment.

Hepatic Impairment

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Dextroamphetamine in patients with hepatic impairment.

Females of Reproductive Potential and Males

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Dextroamphetamine in women of reproductive potentials and males.

Immunocompromised Patients

There is no FDA guidance one the use of Dextroamphetamine in patients who are immunocompromised.

Administration and Monitoring

Administration

  • Oral

Monitoring

  • All patients should be monitored for larger changes in heart rate and blood pressure.
  • Although there is no systematic evidence that stimulants cause aggressive behavior or hostility, patients beginning treatment for ADHD should be monitored for the appearance of, or worsening of, aggressive behavior or hostility.
  • Growth should be monitored during treatment with stimulants, and patients who are not growing or gaining height or weight as expected may need to have their treatment interrupted especially in children

IV Compatibility

There is limited information regarding IV Compatibility of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

Overdosage

  • Individual patient response to amphetamines varies widely. While toxic symptoms occasionally occur as an idiosyncrasy at doses as low as 2 mg, they are rare with doses of less than 15 mg; 30 mg can produce severe reactions, yet doses of 400 to 500 mg are not necessarily fatal.
  • In rats, the oral LD50 of dextroamphetamine sulfate is 96.8 mg/kg.
  • Manifestations of acute overdosage with amphetamines include restlessness, tremor, hyperreflexia, rhabdomyolysis, rapid respiration, hyperpyrexia, confusion, assaultiveness, hallucinations, panic states.
  • Fatigue and depression usually follow the central stimulation.
  • Cardiovascular effects include arrhythmias, hypertension or hypotension and circulatory collapse. Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Fatal poisoning is usually preceded by convulsions and coma.
TREATMENT
  • Consult with a Certified Poison Control Center for up-to-date guidance and advice.
  • Management of acute amphetamine intoxication is largely symptomatic and includes gastric lavage, administration of activated charcoal, administration of a cathartic, and sedation. Experience with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis is inadequate to permit recommendation in this regard.
  • Acidification of the urine increases amphetamine excretion, but is believed to increase risk of acute renal failure if myoglobinuria is present.
  • If acute, severe hypertension complicates amphetamine overdosage, administration of intravenous phentolamine has been suggested. However, a gradual drop in blood pressure will usually result when sufficient sedation has been achieved.
  • Chlorpromazine antagonizes the central stimulant effects of amphetamines and can be used to treat amphetamine intoxication.

Pharmacology

Template:Px
Template:Px
Dextroamphetamine
Systematic (IUPAC) name
(2S)-1-phenylpropan-2-amine
Identifiers
CAS number 51-64-9
ATC code N06BA02
PubChem 5826
DrugBank DB01576
Chemical data
Formula Template:OrganicBox atomTemplate:OrganicBox atomTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBox atomTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBoxTemplate:OrganicBox 
Mol. mass 135.20622
SMILES eMolecules & PubChem
Physical data
Density 0.913 g/cm³
Boiling point 201.5 °C (395 °F)
Solubility in water 20 mg/mL (20 °C)
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability Oral 75–100%[1]
Metabolism CYP2D6,[2] DBH,[3] FMO3,[4] XM-ligase,[5] and ACGNAT[6]
Half life 10-12 hours[7][8]
Excretion Renal (45%);[9] urinary pH-dependent
Therapeutic considerations
Licence data

Sulfate&SearchType=BasicSearch US

Pregnancy cat.

B3(AU) C(US)

Legal status

Controlled (S8)(AU) Schedule I(CA) Class B(UK) Schedule II(US)

Dependence Liability Moderate to High
Routes Oral (only medically-utilized route)

Mechanism of Action

Structure

File:Dextroamphetamine01.png
This image is provided by the National Library of Medicine.

Pharmacodynamics

There is limited information regarding Pharmacodynamics of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

Pharmacokinetics

There is limited information regarding Pharmacokinetics of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

Nonclinical Toxicology

There is limited information regarding Nonclinical Toxicology of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

Clinical Studies

There is limited information regarding Clinical Studies of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

How Supplied

Storage

There is limited information regarding Dextroamphetamine Storage in the drug label.

Images

Drug Images

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Package and Label Display Panel

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Patient Counseling Information

There is limited information regarding Patient Counseling Information of Dextroamphetamine in the drug label.

Precautions with Alcohol

  • Alcohol-Dextroamphetamine interaction has not been established. Talk to your doctor about the effects of taking alcohol with this medication.

Brand Names

Look-Alike Drug Names

Drug Shortage Status

Price

References

The contents of this FDA label are provided by the National Library of Medicine.

  1. "Dextromphetamine". DrugBank. Retrieved 5 November 2013. |section= ignored (help)
  2. "Adderall XR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. December 2013. pp. 12&ndash, 13. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  3. Lemke TL, Williams DA, Roche VF, Zito W (2013). Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry (7th ed. ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 648. ISBN 1609133455. Alternatively, direct oxidation of amphetamine by DA β-hydroxylase can afford norephedrine.
  4. Krueger SK, Williams DE (June 2005). "Mammalian flavin-containing monooxygenases: structure/function, genetic polymorphisms and role in drug metabolism". Pharmacol. Ther. 106 (3): 357&ndash, 387. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.01.001. PMC 1828602. PMID 15922018.
  5. "Dexedrine Medication Guide" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. May 2013. p. 1. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  6. "Dextroamphetamine Sulfate (dextroamphetamine sulfate) Tablet [ETHEX Corporation]". DailyMed. ETHEX Corporation. February 2008. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  7. "dextrostat (dextroamphetamine sulfate) tablet [Shire US Inc.]". DailyMed. Wayne, PA: Shire US Inc. August 2006. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  8. Empty citation (help)
  9. "http://www.ismp.org". External link in |title= (help)

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