Amaurosis fugax causes: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
Amaurosis fugax is a symptom of [[carotid artery disease]]. It occurs when a piece of plaque in a [[carotid artery]] breaks off and travels to the [[retinal artery]] in the eye. The carotid arteries provide the main blood supply to the brain. They are located on each side of the neck under the jaw. Plaque is a hard substance that forms when fat, [[cholesterol]], and other substances build up in the walls of arteries. Pieces of plaque can block blood flow. In people with amaurosis fugax, [[vision loss]] continues as long as the blood supply to the retinal artery is blocked.
Amaurosis fugax is a symptom of [[carotid artery disease]]. It occurs when a piece of plaque in a [[carotid artery]] breaks off and travels to the [[retinal artery]] in the eye. The carotid arteries provide the main blood supply to the brain. They are located on each side of the neck under the jaw. Plaque is a hard substance that forms when fat, [[cholesterol]]<ref name="pmid21993354">{{cite journal |author=Saric M, Kronzon I |title=Cholesterol embolization syndrome |journal=Curr. Opin. Cardiol. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=472–9 |year=2011 |month=November |pmid=21993354 |doi=10.1097/HCO.0b013e32834b7fdd |url=}}</ref>, and other substances build up in the walls of arteries. Pieces of plaque can block blood flow. In people with amaurosis fugax, [[vision loss]] continues as long as the blood supply to the retinal artery is blocked.
Atherosclerosis of the arteries in the neck is the main risk factor for this condition. Risk factors for atherosclerosis include [[heart disease]], [[high cholesterol]], [[smoking]], [[diabetes]], and [[high blood pressure]].
Atherosclerosis of the arteries in the neck is the main risk factor for this condition. Risk factors for atherosclerosis include [[heart disease]], [[high cholesterol]], [[smoking]], [[diabetes]], and [[high blood pressure]]<ref name="pmid11108323">{{cite journal |author=Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN |title=Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III |journal=Angiology |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=793–808 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11108323 |doi= |url=}}</ref>.
 
==Causes==
===Common Causes===
 
 
*[[Atherosclerosis]]
 
*[[Diabetes mellitus]]
*[[Hypertension]]
*[[Transient ischemic attack]]
 
===Causes by Organ System===
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Atherosclerosis]], Blood coagulation disorders, Cardiac [[emboli]], [[Cardiac failure]], [[Carotid artery stenosis]], Carotid occlusive disease, Carotid bifurcation [[thromboembolism]], [[Central retinal vein occlusion]], Decreased blood flow (ischemia) to the retina, [[Fatigue]], [[Hollenhorst plaque]]([[cholesterol embolus]], [[Hyperlipidemia]], [[Hypertension]], Hypofibrinolysis, [[Hypoperfusion]], [[Hypotension]], [[Hypovolemia]], [[Ischemic stroke]], Local emboli (ipsilateral [[internal carotid artery]], Malignant [[arterial hypertension]], Preexisting asymmetric occlusive [[vascular disease]], Retinal artery [[thrombosis]], Retinal [[emboli]], [[Retinal vein occlusion]], [[Stroke]], [[Vasospasm]] 
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Pramipexole]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Diabetes mellitus]], [[Obesity]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Thrombophilia]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy]], [[Migraine]] aura, Neurologic disorder, [[Papilledema]], [[Optic neuritis]], [[Ischemic stroke]], [[Retinal artery]] occlusion (RAO), Retinal vein occlusion
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Blindness]], Chiasm compression, [[Glaucoma]], [[Ocular ischemic syndrome]], [[Optic nerve]], Sudden vision changes, [[Optic neuritis]], [[Papilledema]], [[Oculomotor]] disturbances
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Psychogenic]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Polyuria]] ([[frequent urination]])
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| Inflammatory arteritis ([[Takayasu's arteritis]])
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| Blood viscosity, [[Drug abuse]], [[Idiopathic]], Nonvascular ophthalmic disorder, Unexplained [[weight loss]]
|-
|}


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{MultiCol}}
{{columns-list|
 
*Acute [[hypovolemia]]


*[[Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy]]
*[[Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy]]<ref name="pmid22758382">{{cite journal |author=Rahim A, Kumar P, Burns J, Sampath R |title=Isolated ocular cutaneous involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome |journal=Orbit |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=367–9 |year=2012 |month=October |pmid=22758382 |doi=10.3109/01676830.2012.694554 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome]]
*[[Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome]]<ref name="pmid22758382">{{cite journal |author=Rahim A, Kumar P, Burns J, Sampath R |title=Isolated ocular cutaneous involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome |journal=Orbit |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=367–9 |year=2012 |month=October |pmid=22758382 |doi=10.3109/01676830.2012.694554 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Atherosclerosis]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Atherosclerosis]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20413774">{{cite journal |author=Owen DR, Shalhoub J, Miller S, ''et al.'' |title=Inflammation within carotid atherosclerotic plaque: assessment with late-phase contrast-enhanced US |journal=Radiology |volume=255 |issue=2 |pages=638–44 |year=2010 |month=May |pmid=20413774 |doi=10.1148/radiol.10091365 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21993354">{{cite journal |author=Saric M, Kronzon I |title=Cholesterol embolization syndrome |journal=Curr. Opin. Cardiol. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=472–9 |year=2011 |month=November |pmid=21993354 |doi=10.1097/HCO.0b013e32834b7fdd |url=}}</ref>


*[[Blindness]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22157266">{{cite journal |author=Alba MA, Mena-Madrazo JA, Reyes E, Flores-Suárez LF |title=Giant cell arteritis in Mexican patients |journal=J Clin Rheumatol |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=2012 |month=January |pmid=22157266 |doi=10.1097/RHU.0b013e31823e2e35 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Blindness]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22157266">{{cite journal |author=Alba MA, Mena-Madrazo JA, Reyes E, Flores-Suárez LF |title=Giant cell arteritis in Mexican patients |journal=J Clin Rheumatol |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=2012 |month=January |pmid=22157266 |doi=10.1097/RHU.0b013e31823e2e35 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12235561">{{cite journal |author=Medrano-Martínez V, Sempere AP, Mola S, Flores-Ruiz JJ, Vázquez-Suárez JC |title=[Amaurosis fugax as the sole manifestation of a dural arteriovenous fistula] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Rev Neurol |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=325–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12235561 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*Blood coagulation disorders
*Blood coagulation disorders
Line 34: Line 157:
*Carotid occlusive disease
*Carotid occlusive disease


*[[Carotid stenosis]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Carotid stenosis]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23198268">{{cite journal |author=Tomaschütz L, Dos Santos M, Schill J, Palm F, Grau A |title=Recurrent amaurosis fugax in a patient after stanford type a dissection depending on blood pressure and haemoglobin level |journal=Case Rep Vasc Med |volume=2012 |issue= |pages=254204 |year=2012 |pmid=23198268 |pmc=3502825 |doi=10.1155/2012/254204 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Central retinal vein occlusion]]<ref name="pmid22969282">{{cite journal |author=Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Jurantee J, Khan Z, Wang P |title=Thrombophilia and retinal vascular occlusion |journal=Clin Ophthalmol |volume=6 |issue= |pages=1377–84 |year=2012 |pmid=22969282 |pmc=3437951 |doi=10.2147/OPTH.S34627 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Central retinal vein occlusion]]<ref name="pmid22969282">{{cite journal |author=Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Jurantee J, Khan Z, Wang P |title=Thrombophilia and retinal vascular occlusion |journal=Clin Ophthalmol |volume=6 |issue= |pages=1377–84 |year=2012 |pmid=22969282 |pmc=3437951 |doi=10.2147/OPTH.S34627 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16439697">{{cite journal |author=Cugati S, Wang JJ, Rochtchina E, Mitchell P |title=Ten-year incidence of retinal emboli in an older population |journal=Stroke |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=908–10 |year=2006 |month=March |pmid=16439697|doi=10.1161/01.STR.0000204118.87477.46 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22758382">{{cite journal |author=Rahim A, Kumar P, Burns J, Sampath R |title=Isolated ocular cutaneous involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome |journal=Orbit |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=367–9 |year=2012 |month=October |pmid=22758382|doi=10.3109/01676830.2012.694554 |url=}}</ref>


*Cerebral [[transient ischemic attacks]] (TIAs)<ref name="pmid4083852">{{cite journal |author=Hurwitz BJ, Heyman A, Wilkinson WE, Haynes CS, Utley CM |title=Comparison of amaurosis fugax and transient cerebral ischemia: a prospective clinical and arteriographic study |journal=Ann. Neurol. |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=698–704 |year=1985 |month=December |pmid=4083852 |doi=10.1002/ana.410180612 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Central [[retinal artery]] occlusion<ref name="pmid10436091">{{cite journal |author=Ahuja RM, Chaturvedi S, Eliott D, Joshi N, Puklin JE, Abrams GW |title=Mechanisms of retinal arterial occlusive disease in African American and Caucasian patients |journal=Stroke |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=1506–9 |year=1999 |month=August |pmid=10436091 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
*Cerebral [[transient ischemic attacks]] (TIAs)<ref name="pmid4083852">{{cite journal |author=Hurwitz BJ, Heyman A, Wilkinson WE, Haynes CS, Utley CM |title=Comparison of amaurosis fugax and transient cerebral ischemia: a prospective clinical and arteriographic study |journal=Ann. Neurol. |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=698–704 |year=1985 |month=December |pmid=4083852 |doi=10.1002/ana.410180612 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23198268">{{cite journal |author=Tomaschütz L, Dos Santos M, Schill J, Palm F, Grau A |title=Recurrent amaurosis fugax in a patient after stanford type a dissection depending on blood pressure and haemoglobin level |journal=Case Rep Vasc Med |volume=2012 |issue= |pages=254204 |year=2012 |pmid=23198268 |pmc=3502825 |doi=10.1155/2012/254204 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23206553">{{cite journal |author=Paul NL, Simoni M, Rothwell PM |title=Transient isolated brainstem symptoms preceding posterior circulation stroke: a population-based study |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=65–71 |year=2013 |month=January |pmid=23206553 |pmc=3530272 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70299-5 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20413774">{{cite journal |author=Owen DR, Shalhoub J, Miller S, ''et al.'' |title=Inflammation within carotid atherosclerotic plaque: assessment with late-phase contrast-enhanced US |journal=Radiology |volume=255 |issue=2 |pages=638–44 |year=2010 |month=May |pmid=20413774 |doi=10.1148/radiol.10091365 |url=}}</ref>


*Chiasm compression
*Chiasm compression
*[[Cigarette smoking]]<ref name="pmid11108323">{{cite journal |author=Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN |title=Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III |journal=Angiology |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=793–808 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11108323 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Collagen]]
*[[Collagen]]


*Decreased blood flow (ischemia) to the retina
*Decreased blood flow ([[ischemia]]) to the retina


*[[Diabetes mellitus]]
*[[Diabetes mellitus]]<ref name="pmid11108323">{{cite journal |author=Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN |title=Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III |journal=Angiology |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=793–808 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11108323 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*Disease susceptibility
*Disease susceptibility
Line 58: Line 185:
*[[Elastin]]
*[[Elastin]]


*Extracranial arterial occlusive disease
*Extracranial arterial occlusive disease<ref name="pmid10436091">{{cite journal |author=Ahuja RM, Chaturvedi S, Eliott D, Joshi N, Puklin JE, Abrams GW |title=Mechanisms of retinal arterial occlusive disease in African American and Caucasian patients |journal=Stroke |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=1506–9 |year=1999 |month=August |pmid=10436091 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Fatigue]]
*[[Fatigue]]
Line 66: Line 193:
*[[Glaucoma]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16935241">{{cite journal |author=Khan AO |title=Severe psychogenic visual loss in a girl with siblings blinded from congenital glaucoma |journal=J AAPOS |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=373–4 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16935241 |doi=10.1016/j.jaapos.2006.01.216 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Glaucoma]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16935241">{{cite journal |author=Khan AO |title=Severe psychogenic visual loss in a girl with siblings blinded from congenital glaucoma |journal=J AAPOS |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=373–4 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16935241 |doi=10.1016/j.jaapos.2006.01.216 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Hollenhorst plaque]]([[cholesterol embolus]])<ref name="pmid21993354">{{cite journal |author=Saric M, Kronzon I |title=Cholesterol embolization syndrome |journal=Curr. Opin. Cardiol. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=472–9 |year=2011 |month=November |pmid=21993354 |doi=10.1097/HCO.0b013e32834b7fdd |url=}}</ref>
*[[Hollenhorst plaque]] ([[cholesterol]] embolus)<ref name="pmid21993354">{{cite journal |author=Saric M, Kronzon I |title=Cholesterol embolization syndrome |journal=Curr. Opin. Cardiol. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=472–9 |year=2011 |month=November |pmid=21993354 |doi=10.1097/HCO.0b013e32834b7fdd |url=}}</ref>
 
*[[Hypercholesterolemia]]<ref name="pmid21993354">{{cite journal |author=Saric M, Kronzon I |title=Cholesterol embolization syndrome |journal=Curr. Opin. Cardiol. |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=472–9 |year=2011 |month=November |pmid=21993354 |doi=10.1097/HCO.0b013e32834b7fdd |url=}}</ref>
 
*[[Hyperlipidemia]]<ref name="pmid11108323">{{cite journal |author=Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN |title=Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III |journal=Angiology |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=793–808 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11108323 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Hyperlipidemia]]
*[[Hypertension]]<ref name="pmid11108323">{{cite journal |author=Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN |title=Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III |journal=Angiology |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=793–808 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11108323 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Hypertension]]
* Hypofibrinolysis
* Hypofibrinolysis


*[[Hypoperfusion]] (from [[cardiac failure]])
*[[Hypoperfusion]] (from [[cardiac failure]])<ref name="pmid23198268">{{cite journal |author=Tomaschütz L, Dos Santos M, Schill J, Palm F, Grau A |title=Recurrent amaurosis fugax in a patient after stanford type a dissection depending on blood pressure and haemoglobin level |journal=Case Rep Vasc Med |volume=2012 |issue= |pages=254204 |year=2012 |pmid=23198268 |pmc=3502825 |doi=10.1155/2012/254204 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Hypotension]]
*[[Hypotension]]<ref name="pmid23198268">{{cite journal |author=Tomaschütz L, Dos Santos M, Schill J, Palm F, Grau A |title=Recurrent amaurosis fugax in a patient after stanford type a dissection depending on blood pressure and haemoglobin level |journal=Case Rep Vasc Med |volume=2012 |issue= |pages=254204 |year=2012 |pmid=23198268 |pmc=3502825 |doi=10.1155/2012/254204 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Hypovolemia]]
*[[Hypovolemia]]


*[[Idiopathic]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
{{ColBreak}}


*Inflammatory arteritis ([[Takayasu's arteritis]])
*Inflammatory arteritis ([[Takayasu's arteritis]])<ref name="pmid21397438">{{cite journal |author=Nazzal MD, Agko M, Zingale K, Hamdan M, Higgins JA, Clark P |title=A unique presentation of Takayasu's arteritis in a 39-year-old male with chest pain, vertigo, and blindness |journal=J. Vasc. Surg. |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=529–32 |year=2011 |month=August |pmid=21397438 |doi=10.1016/j.jvs.2010.12.059 |url=}}</ref>


*Ipsilateral carotid disease<ref name="pmid22669766">{{cite journal |author=Huwez F, Umasankar U, Casswell E, Menon J, Gadi N |title=Sudden loss of vision in a patient with significant ipsilateral internal carotid disease |journal=BMJ Case Rep |volume=2011 |issue= |pages= |year=2011 |pmid=22669766 |doi=10.1136/bcr.08.2011.4725 |url=}}</ref>
*Ipsilateral carotid disease<ref name="pmid22669766">{{cite journal |author=Huwez F, Umasankar U, Casswell E, Menon J, Gadi N |title=Sudden loss of vision in a patient with significant ipsilateral internal carotid disease |journal=BMJ Case Rep |volume=2011 |issue= |pages= |year=2011 |pmid=22669766 |doi=10.1136/bcr.08.2011.4725 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20413774">{{cite journal |author=Owen DR, Shalhoub J, Miller S, ''et al.'' |title=Inflammation within carotid atherosclerotic plaque: assessment with late-phase contrast-enhanced US |journal=Radiology |volume=255 |issue=2 |pages=638–44 |year=2010 |month=May |pmid=20413774 |doi=10.1148/radiol.10091365 |url=}}</ref>


*Irregular ulcerated lesion
*Irregular ulcerated lesion
Line 90: Line 219:
*[[Ischemic stroke]]
*[[Ischemic stroke]]


*Local emboli (ipsilateral [[internal carotid artery]])
*Local emboli (ipsilateral [[internal carotid artery]])<ref name="pmid2316954">{{cite journal |author=Bishara SA, Estrin I, Rand WJ |title=Immediate contralateral amaurosis after retrobulbar anesthesia |journal=Ann Ophthalmol |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–5 |year=1990 |month=February |pmid=2316954 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*Malignant [[arterial hypertension]]
*Malignant [[arterial hypertension]]


*[[Migraine]] aura
*[[Migraine]] aura<ref name="pmid18064948">{{cite journal |author=Coroi M, Bontas E, Visan R, Defranceschi M, Cioranu CD |title=Ocular migraine and antiphospholipid antibodies--where we stand? |journal=Oftalmologia |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=8–15 |year=2007 |pmid=18064948 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Multiple sclerosis]]
*[[Multiple sclerosis]]<ref name="pmid19065918">{{cite journal |author=Roşca T |title=[Methods of prevention of ischemic cerebral damages in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies] |language=Romanian |journal=Oftalmologia |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=72–6 |year=2008 |pmid=19065918 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*Neurologic disorder
*Neurologic disorder
Line 103: Line 232:


*Nonvascular ophthalmic disorder
*Nonvascular ophthalmic disorder
*[[Obesity]]  
 
*[[Obesity]]<ref name="pmid11108323">{{cite journal |author=Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN |title=Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III |journal=Angiology |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=793–808 |year=2000 |month=October |pmid=11108323 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Ocular ischemic syndrome]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Ocular ischemic syndrome]]<ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Line 109: Line 239:
*[[Oculomotor]] disturbances
*[[Oculomotor]] disturbances


*[[Optic nerve]]
*[[Optic nerve]]<ref name="pmid19727900">{{cite journal |author=Awad AM, Estephan B, Warnack W, Stüve O |title=Optic neuritis presenting with amaurosis fugax |journal=J. Neurol. |volume=256 |issue=12 |pages=2100–3 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=19727900 |doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5302-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2316954">{{cite journal |author=Bishara SA, Estrin I, Rand WJ |title=Immediate contralateral amaurosis after retrobulbar anesthesia |journal=Ann Ophthalmol |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=63–5 |year=1990 |month=February |pmid=2316954 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Optic neuritis]]
*[[Optic neuritis]]<ref name="pmid19727900">{{cite journal |author=Awad AM, Estephan B, Warnack W, Stüve O |title=Optic neuritis presenting with amaurosis fugax |journal=J. Neurol. |volume=256 |issue=12 |pages=2100–3 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=19727900 |doi=10.1007/s00415-009-5302-4 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Orthostatic hypotension]]<ref name="pmid2261177">{{cite journal |author=Lord RS |title=Transient monocular blindness |journal=Aust N Z J Ophthalmol |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=299–305 |year=1990 |month=August |pmid=2261177 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Orthostatic hypotension]]<ref name="pmid2261177">{{cite journal |author=Lord RS |title=Transient monocular blindness |journal=Aust N Z J Ophthalmol |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=299–305 |year=1990 |month=August |pmid=2261177 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Papilledema]]
*[[Papilledema]]<ref name="pmid12235561">{{cite journal |author=Medrano-Martínez V, Sempere AP, Mola S, Flores-Ruiz JJ, Vázquez-Suárez JC |title=[Amaurosis fugax as the sole manifestation of a dural arteriovenous fistula] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Rev Neurol |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=325–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12235561 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*Preexisting asymmetric occlusive [[vascular disease]]
*Preexisting asymmetric occlusive [[vascular disease]]
Line 131: Line 261:
*Retinal [[emboli]]<ref name="pmid16741179">{{cite journal |author=Wang JJ, Cugati S, Knudtson MD, ''et al.'' |title=Retinal arteriolar emboli and long-term mortality: pooled data analysis from two older populations |journal=Stroke |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=1833–6 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16741179 |doi=10.1161/01.STR.0000226929.23297.75 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Retinal [[emboli]]<ref name="pmid16741179">{{cite journal |author=Wang JJ, Cugati S, Knudtson MD, ''et al.'' |title=Retinal arteriolar emboli and long-term mortality: pooled data analysis from two older populations |journal=Stroke |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=1833–6 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16741179 |doi=10.1161/01.STR.0000226929.23297.75 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*Retinal [[migraine]]
*Retinal [[migraine]]<ref name="pmid18064948">{{cite journal |author=Coroi M, Bontas E, Visan R, Defranceschi M, Cioranu CD |title=Ocular migraine and antiphospholipid antibodies--where we stand? |journal=Oftalmologia |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=8–15 |year=2007 |pmid=18064948 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
*Retinal vein occlusion<ref name="pmid16439697">{{cite journal |author=Cugati S, Wang JJ, Rochtchina E, Mitchell P |title=Ten-year incidence of retinal emboli in an older population |journal=Stroke |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=908–10 |year=2006 |month=March |pmid=16439697 |doi=10.1161/01.STR.0000204118.87477.46 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22783748">{{cite journal |author=Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T |title=[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis] |language=Polish |journal=Klin Oczna |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22783748 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


*[[Stroke]]
*[[Stroke]]<ref name="pmid23206553">{{cite journal |author=Paul NL, Simoni M, Rothwell PM |title=Transient isolated brainstem symptoms preceding posterior circulation stroke: a population-based study |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=65–71 |year=2013 |month=January |pmid=23206553 |pmc=3530272 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70299-5 |url=}}</ref>


*Sudden vision changes
*Sudden vision changes
Line 145: Line 273:
*[[Thrombophilia]]<ref name="pmid22969282">{{cite journal |author=Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Jurantee J, Khan Z, Wang P |title=Thrombophilia and retinal vascular occlusion |journal=Clin Ophthalmol |volume=6 |issue= |pages=1377–84 |year=2012 |pmid=22969282 |pmc=3437951 |doi=10.2147/OPTH.S34627 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Thrombophilia]]<ref name="pmid22969282">{{cite journal |author=Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Jurantee J, Khan Z, Wang P |title=Thrombophilia and retinal vascular occlusion |journal=Clin Ophthalmol |volume=6 |issue= |pages=1377–84 |year=2012 |pmid=22969282 |pmc=3437951 |doi=10.2147/OPTH.S34627 |url=}}</ref>


*[[Tingling]] (or [[numbness]] in hands or feet)
*[[Tingling]] (or [[numbness]] in hands or feet)<ref name="pmid23206553">{{cite journal |author=Paul NL, Simoni M, Rothwell PM |title=Transient isolated brainstem symptoms preceding posterior circulation stroke: a population-based study |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=65–71 |year=2013 |month=January |pmid=23206553 |pmc=3530272 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70299-5 |url=}}</ref>


*Unexplained [[weight loss]]
*Unexplained [[weight loss]]
Line 152: Line 280:


*Very [[dry skin]]
*Very [[dry skin]]
{{EndMultiCol}}
}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}


{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Needs content]]
[[Category:Needs content]]
[[Category:Needs causes]]
[[Category:Needs causes]]
Line 162: Line 291:
[[Category:Ophthalmology]]
[[Category:Ophthalmology]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Symptoms]]
[[Category:Signs and symptoms]]
[[Category:Ddx]]
[[Category:Ddx]]

Latest revision as of 20:08, 10 January 2020

Amaurosis fugax Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor-In-Chief: Marcelo R. Zacarkim, M.D. [2]

Overview

Amaurosis fugax is a symptom of carotid artery disease. It occurs when a piece of plaque in a carotid artery breaks off and travels to the retinal artery in the eye. The carotid arteries provide the main blood supply to the brain. They are located on each side of the neck under the jaw. Plaque is a hard substance that forms when fat, cholesterol[1], and other substances build up in the walls of arteries. Pieces of plaque can block blood flow. In people with amaurosis fugax, vision loss continues as long as the blood supply to the retinal artery is blocked. Atherosclerosis of the arteries in the neck is the main risk factor for this condition. Risk factors for atherosclerosis include heart disease, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, and high blood pressure[2].

Causes

Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Atherosclerosis, Blood coagulation disorders, Cardiac emboli, Cardiac failure, Carotid artery stenosis, Carotid occlusive disease, Carotid bifurcation thromboembolism, Central retinal vein occlusion, Decreased blood flow (ischemia) to the retina, Fatigue, Hollenhorst plaque(cholesterol embolus, Hyperlipidemia, Hypertension, Hypofibrinolysis, Hypoperfusion, Hypotension, Hypovolemia, Ischemic stroke, Local emboli (ipsilateral internal carotid artery, Malignant arterial hypertension, Preexisting asymmetric occlusive vascular disease, Retinal artery thrombosis, Retinal emboli, Retinal vein occlusion, Stroke, Vasospasm
Chemical / poisoning No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Pramipexole
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Diabetes mellitus, Obesity
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic No underlying causes
Genetic No underlying causes
Hematologic Thrombophilia
Iatrogenic No underlying causes
Infectious Disease No underlying causes
Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, Migraine aura, Neurologic disorder, Papilledema, Optic neuritis, Ischemic stroke, Retinal artery occlusion (RAO), Retinal vein occlusion
Nutritional / Metabolic No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic No underlying causes
Opthalmologic Blindness, Chiasm compression, Glaucoma, Ocular ischemic syndrome, Optic nerve, Sudden vision changes, Optic neuritis, Papilledema, Oculomotor disturbances
Overdose / Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric Psychogenic
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal / Electrolyte Polyuria (frequent urination)
Rheum / Immune / Allergy Inflammatory arteritis (Takayasu's arteritis)
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Blood viscosity, Drug abuse, Idiopathic, Nonvascular ophthalmic disorder, Unexplained weight loss

Causes in Alphabetical Order

  • Blood coagulation disorders
  • Blood viscosity
  • Cardiac emboli (valve, mural thrombi, intracardiac tumor)
  • Carotid occlusive disease
  • Chiasm compression
  • Decreased blood flow (ischemia) to the retina
  • Disease susceptibility
  • Distal internal carotid artery atheroembolism
  • Extracranial arterial occlusive disease[12]
  • Hypofibrinolysis
  • Ipsilateral carotid disease[8][5]
  • Irregular ulcerated lesion
  • Neurologic disorder
  • Nonvascular ophthalmic disorder
  • Sudden vision changes

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Saric M, Kronzon I (2011). "Cholesterol embolization syndrome". Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 26 (6): 472–9. doi:10.1097/HCO.0b013e32834b7fdd. PMID 21993354. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Daskalopoulou SS, Nicolaides AN (2000). "Stroke: epidemiology, clinical picture, and risk factors--Part I of III". Angiology. 51 (10): 793–808. PMID 11108323. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Rahim A, Kumar P, Burns J, Sampath R (2012). "Isolated ocular cutaneous involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome". Orbit. 31 (5): 367–9. doi:10.3109/01676830.2012.694554. PMID 22758382. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Rozegnał-Madej A, Bielecka E, Swiech-Zubilewicz A, Zarnowski T, Karakuła W, Zubilewicz T (2012). "[Ophthalmological complications associated with clinically significant carotid stenosis]". Klin Oczna (in Polish). 114 (1): 57–62. PMID 22783748.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Owen DR, Shalhoub J, Miller S; et al. (2010). "Inflammation within carotid atherosclerotic plaque: assessment with late-phase contrast-enhanced US". Radiology. 255 (2): 638–44. doi:10.1148/radiol.10091365. PMID 20413774. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Alba MA, Mena-Madrazo JA, Reyes E, Flores-Suárez LF (2012). "Giant cell arteritis in Mexican patients". J Clin Rheumatol. 18 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1097/RHU.0b013e31823e2e35. PMID 22157266. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Medrano-Martínez V, Sempere AP, Mola S, Flores-Ruiz JJ, Vázquez-Suárez JC (2002). "[Amaurosis fugax as the sole manifestation of a dural arteriovenous fistula]". Rev Neurol (in Spanish; Castilian). 35 (4): 325–7. PMID 12235561.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Huwez F, Umasankar U, Casswell E, Menon J, Gadi N (2011). "Sudden loss of vision in a patient with significant ipsilateral internal carotid disease". BMJ Case Rep. 2011. doi:10.1136/bcr.08.2011.4725. PMID 22669766.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Tomaschütz L, Dos Santos M, Schill J, Palm F, Grau A (2012). "Recurrent amaurosis fugax in a patient after stanford type a dissection depending on blood pressure and haemoglobin level". Case Rep Vasc Med. 2012: 254204. doi:10.1155/2012/254204. PMC 3502825. PMID 23198268.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Jurantee J, Khan Z, Wang P (2012). "Thrombophilia and retinal vascular occlusion". Clin Ophthalmol. 6: 1377–84. doi:10.2147/OPTH.S34627. PMC 3437951. PMID 22969282.
  11. ↑ Cugati S, Wang JJ, Rochtchina E, Mitchell P (2006). "Ten-year incidence of retinal emboli in an older population". Stroke. 37 (3): 908–10. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000204118.87477.46. PMID 16439697. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Ahuja RM, Chaturvedi S, Eliott D, Joshi N, Puklin JE, Abrams GW (1999). "Mechanisms of retinal arterial occlusive disease in African American and Caucasian patients". Stroke. 30 (8): 1506–9. PMID 10436091. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Hurwitz BJ, Heyman A, Wilkinson WE, Haynes CS, Utley CM (1985). "Comparison of amaurosis fugax and transient cerebral ischemia: a prospective clinical and arteriographic study". Ann. Neurol. 18 (6): 698–704. doi:10.1002/ana.410180612. PMID 4083852. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Paul NL, Simoni M, Rothwell PM (2013). "Transient isolated brainstem symptoms preceding posterior circulation stroke: a population-based study". Lancet Neurol. 12 (1): 65–71. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70299-5. PMC 3530272. PMID 23206553. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B (1998). "Ocular manifestations of giant cell arteritis". Am. J. Ophthalmol. 125 (4): 509–20. PMID 9559737. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B (1998). "Occult giant cell arteritis: ocular manifestations". Am. J. Ophthalmol. 125 (4): 521–6. PMID 9559738. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Khan AO (2006). "Severe psychogenic visual loss in a girl with siblings blinded from congenital glaucoma". J AAPOS. 10 (4): 373–4. doi:10.1016/j.jaapos.2006.01.216. PMID 16935241. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ Nazzal MD, Agko M, Zingale K, Hamdan M, Higgins JA, Clark P (2011). "A unique presentation of Takayasu's arteritis in a 39-year-old male with chest pain, vertigo, and blindness". J. Vasc. Surg. 54 (2): 529–32. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2010.12.059. PMID 21397438. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Bishara SA, Estrin I, Rand WJ (1990). "Immediate contralateral amaurosis after retrobulbar anesthesia". Ann Ophthalmol. 22 (2): 63–5. PMID 2316954. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Coroi M, Bontas E, Visan R, Defranceschi M, Cioranu CD (2007). "Ocular migraine and antiphospholipid antibodies--where we stand?". Oftalmologia. 51 (3): 8–15. PMID 18064948.
  21. ↑ Roşca T (2008). "[Methods of prevention of ischemic cerebral damages in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies]". Oftalmologia (in Romanian). 52 (2): 72–6. PMID 19065918.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Awad AM, Estephan B, Warnack W, Stüve O (2009). "Optic neuritis presenting with amaurosis fugax". J. Neurol. 256 (12): 2100–3. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5302-4. PMID 19727900. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ Lord RS (1990). "Transient monocular blindness". Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 18 (3): 299–305. PMID 2261177. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ Mead GE, Lewis SC, Wardlaw JM, Dennis MS (2002). "Comparison of risk factors in patients with transient and prolonged eye and brain ischemic syndromes". Stroke. 33 (10): 2383–90. PMID 12364725. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ↑ Wang JJ, Cugati S, Knudtson MD; et al. (2006). "Retinal arteriolar emboli and long-term mortality: pooled data analysis from two older populations". Stroke. 37 (7): 1833–6. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000226929.23297.75. PMID 16741179. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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