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==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
===Medical Therapy=== | ===Medical Therapy=== | ||
The majority of cases of pseudohypoparathyroidism are self-limited and require only supportive care. | *The majority of cases of pseudohypoparathyroidism are self-limited and require only supportive care. | ||
The mainstay of treatment for pseudohypoparathyroidism is oral calcium and 1alpha-hydroxylated vitamin D metabolites, such as calcitriol. Other forms of Vitamin D cannot be used as PTH resistance in the proximal tubule decreases the efficiency of production of 1,25(OH)2D from 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The goal is to maintain serum calcium within the normal range to prevent hypercalciuria and to maintain PTH levels within reference range which helps prevent bone remodeling and hyperparathyroid bone disease that can result from elevated parathyroid hormone level.Patients with severe symptomatic hypocalcemia should be treated with intravenous calcium initially.Adult dosage is started 100 mg of elemental calcium (either calcium chloride or calcium gluconate) over 10 to 20 minutes. An additional dose of 100 mg/hr of elemental calcium can be infused if symptoms do not resolve, with close monitoring of calcium levels.Cardiac monitoring may help to guide therapy as rapid infusion of calcium can cause cardiac conduction defects; parenteral formulations available are calcium chloride and calcium gluconate; a 10-mL ampule of 10% calcium chloride contains 360 mg of elemental calcium, and a 10-mL ampule of 10% calcium gluconate contains 93 mg of elemental calcium. | The mainstay of treatment for pseudohypoparathyroidism is oral calcium and 1alpha-hydroxylated vitamin D metabolites, such as calcitriol. Other forms of Vitamin D cannot be used as PTH resistance in the proximal tubule decreases the efficiency of production of 1,25(OH)2D from 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The goal is to maintain serum calcium within the normal range to prevent hypercalciuria and to maintain PTH levels within reference range which helps prevent bone remodeling and hyperparathyroid bone disease that can result from elevated parathyroid hormone level.Patients with severe symptomatic hypocalcemia should be treated with intravenous calcium initially.Adult dosage is started 100 mg of elemental calcium (either calcium chloride or calcium gluconate) over 10 to 20 minutes. An additional dose of 100 mg/hr of elemental calcium can be infused if symptoms do not resolve, with close monitoring of calcium levels.Cardiac monitoring may help to guide therapy as rapid infusion of calcium can cause cardiac conduction defects; parenteral formulations available are calcium chloride and calcium gluconate; a 10-mL ampule of 10% calcium chloride contains 360 mg of elemental calcium, and a 10-mL ampule of 10% calcium gluconate contains 93 mg of elemental calcium. | ||
Revision as of 19:06, 27 September 2017
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mazia Fatima, MBBS [2]
Pseudohypoparathyroidism
Overview
Pseudohypoparathyroidism (PHP) refers to a group of rare endocrine disorders characterized by end organ resistance to the action of parathyroid hormone (PTH), manifestations include hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and increased serum concentration of PTH.
Historical Perspective
In 1942, Fuller albright, an American endocrinologist, first discovered pseudohypoparathyroidim. Pseudohypoparathyoroidism is the first hormone resistance syndrome to be discovered.[1]
In the same year, Albright hereditary osteodystrophy was clinically described together with Pseudohypoparathyroidism. [2]
Classification
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism is classified based on the measurement of serum and urinary cAMP and phosphate excretion levels after the injection of biologically active PTH into following types:[3]
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism type I
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism type II
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1 is further classified into following subtype:[3]
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1b
- Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1c subtypes.
- Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism
- Blomstrand Syndrome is a form of PTH resistance.
Pathophysiology
Pseudohypoparathyroidism is characterized by end organ resistance to parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone effect is mediated by the parathyroid hormone receptor type 1, which acts on a stimulatory guanine-nucleotide–binding (Gs) protein, which is composed of three subunits (α, β, and γ). The GNAS1 gene encodes Gsα subunit that mediates cyclic AMP stimulation by parathyroid hormone and by several other peptide hormones, including thyrotropin.[4] Gene mutation results in failure of signal transduction through Gsα inability to activate adenyl cyclase resulting in resistance of target tissues to parathyroid hormone evidenced by hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia, in the presence of high plasma PTH level.[5] Blomstrand's Chondrodystrophy is lethal prenatally characterized by abnormal endochondral bone formation with prematurely occurring mineralization of the cartilaginous bone templates.
Genetics
Genetic mutations associated with parathyroid hormone resistance are discussed below [6] [7] [8] [9]
| Type of pseudohyoparathyroidism | Molecular Defect | Origin Of Mutation | Inheritence | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pseudohypoparathyroidism type I | Type 1a | Heterozygous GNAS inactivating mutations that reduce expression or function of Gαs | Maternal | Autosomal dominant |
| Type 1b | Familial- heterozygous deletions in STX16, NESP55, and/or AS exons or loss of methylation at GNAS | Maternal | Autosomal dominant | |
| Sporadic- paternal Uniparental disomy of chromosome 20q in some or methylation defect affecting all four GNAS DMRs | Maternal | Genomic imprinting | ||
| Type 1c | Heterozygous GNAS inactivating mutations that reduce expression or function of Gαs | Maternal | Autosomal dominant | |
| Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism | Combination of inactivating mutations of GNAS1 and Albright's osteodystrophy | Paternal | Genomic imprinting | |
| Pseudohypoparathyroidism type II | Insufficient data to suggest genetic or familial source | N/A | N/A | |
| Blomstrand chondrodysplasia | Homozygous or heterozygous mutations in PTH receptor | n/a | Autosomal recessive | |
Causes
Pseudohypoparathyroidism is caused by mutations involving primarily the GNAS gene that results in end organ resistance to parathyroid hormone.For a complete review of genes involved in pseudohypoparathyroidism click here.
Differentiating ((Page name)) from Other Diseases
[Disease name] must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [clinical feature 1], [clinical feature 2], and [clinical feature 3], such as [differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].
OR
[Disease name] must be differentiated from [[differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].
Epidemiology and Demographics
Prevalence
- In Japan, the prevalence of pseudohypoparathyroidism ranges from a low of 0.26 per 100,000 persons to a high of 0.42 per 100,000 persons with an average prevalence of 0.34 per 100,000 persons.[10]
- In Italy, the estimated prevalence of PHP type 1a, type1b, and PPHP is 1 per 150,000.[11]
Risk Factors
The most potent risk factor in the development of pseudohypoparathyroidism is a positive family history for GNAS mutation.
Screening
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for pseudohypoparathyroidism.
Complications
Seizures can occur in children. Associated resistance to thyrotropin can result in hypothyroidism.Some patients also develop gonadotropin or GHRH resistance. Patients may develop paresthesias, muscular cramping, tetany, or carpopedal spasm. Asymptomatic hypocalcemia in children or adolescents can occur. [12]
Subcutaneous calcification has been has been reported in the neonatal period.[13]
Reproductive dysfunction is seen in patients with pseudohypoparathyroidism 1a. Women may experience delayed puberty, oligomenorrhea, and infertility.
Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1b patients are at risk of developing tertiary hyperparathyroidism and hyperparathyroid bone disease. [14]
Features of hypogonadism may be less obvious in men. Testes may show evidence of maturation arrest or may fail to descend normally. Fertility appears to be decreased in men with PHP-1a.
Peudohypoparathyroidism-1a is also associated with variability in osteoclast responsiveness to PTH. Some patients develop osteopenia and rickets.[15]
Prognosis
insufficient data is available to determine the long term outcomes of pseudohypoparathyroidism. In some patients calcium homeostasis adapts to PTH resistance resulting in resolution of hypocalcemia while others who do not adapt to PTH resistance are managed with lifelong calcium supplementation. Long term levothyroxine is used in patients with associated hypothyroidism.
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Criteria
The diagnosis of pseudohypoparathyroidism Type 1a patients includes clinical features of Albright hereditary Osteodystrophy associated with PTH resistance evidenced by hypocalcemia hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia and elevated serum concentration of PTH and diminished urinary cAMP response after administration of the biosynthetic N-terminal fragment of PTH.
History and Symptoms
A positive family history of pseudohypoparathyroidism is suggestive of the autosomal dominant inheritance.
The most common symptoms of pseudohypoparathyroidism Type 1a include short stature ,mental retardation associated with Albright hereditary Osteodystrophy phenotype.
Common symptoms due to resultant hypocalcemia include paresthesias (peri-oral, extremities), Muscle twitching,Carpopedal spasm, Seizures,Prolonged QT interval,Hypotension,Arrhythmia.
Physical Examination
Patients with pseudohypoparathyroidism type1A , type 1c and pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism presents with characteristic physical features of Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy like subcutaneous ossifications and shortening of third, fourth, and fifth metacarpals and metatarsals,round face, frontal bossing, dental hypoplasia not present at birth but becomes apparent by the second decade of life.
Pseudohypoparathyroidism Type 1B isolated resistance to parathyroid hormone without the associated clinical features of Albright's osteodystrophy. Mild brachydactyly is seen in some cases.
Blomstrand's chondrodystrophy presents with short limbs due to characteristic growth impairment.Secondary hyperplasia of the parathyroid glands occurs as a result of associated hypocalcemia.
Laboratory Findings
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of pseudohypoparathyroidism include hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia and elevated serum concentration of PTH and diminished urinary cAMP response after administration of the biosynthetic N-terminal fragment of PTH. the PTH resistance can also cause secondary hyperparathyroidism and hyperparathyroid bone disease.
Immunoradiometric assay (IRMA) can be used to measure serum parathyroid hormone concentration.[12]
Following exogenous parathyroid hormone administration measurement of variations in serum calcium, phosphorus, cAMP and calcitriol and in urinary cAMP and phosphorus excretion helps in assessment of skeletal and renal responsiveness to PTH.
Assessment of thyroid function tests, gonadotropin, testosterone, estrogen and insulin like growth factor will help in identification of any associated underlying hormonal dysfunction
Gsα defects can be diagnosed by assessment of variations in platelet aggregation responses reflecting a patient's genotype.[16]
Psuedohypoparathyroidism type 1b associated bone disease can be evaluated with bone mineral density (BMD) testing
Electrocardiogram
An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of hypocalcemia associated with the pseudohypoparathyroidism. Prolonged QT interval secondary to hypocalcemia is seen on ECG..
X-ray
An x-ray of the hand may be helpful in the diagnosis of pseudohypoparathyroidism. Findings on an x-ray include short distal phalanx of thumb and short third to fifth metacarpals associated with features of albright hereditary osteodystrophy.
Echocardiography or Ultrasound
There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with pseudohypoparathyroidism.
CT scan
Findings on CT scan suggestive of pseudohypoparathyroidism in some patients includes include symmetric calcifications in basal ganglia, perivascular calcifications in soft tissues. [17]
MRI
Consider brain MRI in pseudohypoparathyroidism Ia patients, particularly those with abnormal neurological examination or developmental delay. MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of Chiari Malformation-Type I associated with pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a.
Other Imaging Findings
There are no other imaging findings associated with psuedohypoparathyroidism.
Other Diagnostic Studies
Genetic testing may be helpful in the diagnosis of pseudohypoparathyroidism. Analysis of the GNAS1 gene can confirm diagnosis and identify the different variants of PHP. Testing for paternal uniparental isodisomy of chromosome 20q or deletions in STX16 can also help in diagnosis of pseudohypoparathyroidism 1b. [18]
Treatment
Medical Therapy
- The majority of cases of pseudohypoparathyroidism are self-limited and require only supportive care.
The mainstay of treatment for pseudohypoparathyroidism is oral calcium and 1alpha-hydroxylated vitamin D metabolites, such as calcitriol. Other forms of Vitamin D cannot be used as PTH resistance in the proximal tubule decreases the efficiency of production of 1,25(OH)2D from 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The goal is to maintain serum calcium within the normal range to prevent hypercalciuria and to maintain PTH levels within reference range which helps prevent bone remodeling and hyperparathyroid bone disease that can result from elevated parathyroid hormone level.Patients with severe symptomatic hypocalcemia should be treated with intravenous calcium initially.Adult dosage is started 100 mg of elemental calcium (either calcium chloride or calcium gluconate) over 10 to 20 minutes. An additional dose of 100 mg/hr of elemental calcium can be infused if symptoms do not resolve, with close monitoring of calcium levels.Cardiac monitoring may help to guide therapy as rapid infusion of calcium can cause cardiac conduction defects; parenteral formulations available are calcium chloride and calcium gluconate; a 10-mL ampule of 10% calcium chloride contains 360 mg of elemental calcium, and a 10-mL ampule of 10% calcium gluconate contains 93 mg of elemental calcium.
For neonates, infants, and children, the recommended initial dose is 0.5-1 mL/kg of 10% calcium gluconate administered over 5 minutes.
Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1b patients at an increased risk of developing hyperparathyroidism and/or hyperparathyroid bone disease should be maintained at sufficient doses of calcium and vitamin D to maintain serum calcium and PTH levels within the normal range. Monitor therapy with regular serum and urinary calcium measurements
Surgery
Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with psuedohypoparathyroidism. Surgery resection of enlarged parathyroid glands is usually reserved for patients that develop tertiary hyperparathyroidism in pseudohypoparathyroidism 1b. Rarely, surgical removal of extraskeletal osteomas is done to relieve associated pressure symptoms in patients. [14]
Primary Prevention
Effective measures for the primary prevention of pseudohypoparathyroidism include genetic counseling in inherited cases
Secondary Prevention
There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of psuedohypoparathyroidism.
References
- ↑ Albright F, Burnett CH, Smith PH, Parson (1942). "Pseudohypoparathyroidism- An example of 'Seabright-Bantam syndrome'". Endocrinology. 30: 922–32.
- ↑ Eyre WG, Reed WB (1971). "Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy with cutaneous bone formation". Arch Dermatol. 104 (6): 634–42. PMID 5002252.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Marx SJ (2000). "Hyperparathyroid and hypoparathyroid disorders". N. Engl. J. Med. 343 (25): 1863–75. doi:10.1056/NEJM200012213432508. PMID 11117980.
- ↑ Spiegel AM (2007). "Inherited endocrine diseases involving G proteins and G protein-coupled receptors". Endocr Dev. 11: 133–44. doi:10.1159/0000111069. PMID 17986833.
- ↑ Chase LR, Melson GL, Aurbach GD (1969). "Pseudohypoparathyroidism: defective excretion of 3',5'-AMP in response to parathyroid hormone". J. Clin. Invest. 48 (10): 1832–44. doi:10.1172/JCI106149. PMC 322419. PMID 4309802.
- ↑ Levine MA (2012). "An update on the clinical and molecular characteristics of pseudohypoparathyroidism". Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 19 (6): 443–51. doi:10.1097/MED.0b013e32835a255c. PMC 3679535. PMID 23076042.
- ↑ Mantovani G (2011). "Clinical review: Pseudohypoparathyroidism: diagnosis and treatment". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96 (10): 3020–30. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1048. PMID 21816789.
- ↑ Lee S, Mannstadt M, Guo J, Kim SM, Yi HS, Khatri A, Dean T, Okazaki M, Gardella TJ, Jüppner H (2015). "A Homozygous [Cys25]PTH(1-84) Mutation That Impairs PTH/PTHrP Receptor Activation Defines a Novel Form of Hypoparathyroidism". J. Bone Miner. Res. 30 (10): 1803–13. doi:10.1002/jbmr.2532. PMC 4580526. PMID 25891861.
- ↑ Jobert AS, Zhang P, Couvineau A, Bonaventure J, Roume J, Le Merrer M, Silve C (1998). "Absence of functional receptors for parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related peptide in Blomstrand chondrodysplasia". J. Clin. Invest. 102 (1): 34–40. doi:10.1172/JCI2918. PMC 509062. PMID 9649554.
- ↑ Nakamura Y, Matsumoto T, Tamakoshi A, Kawamura T, Seino Y, Kasuga M, Yanagawa H, Ohno Y (2000). "Prevalence of idiopathic hypoparathyroidism and pseudohypoparathyroidism in Japan". J Epidemiol. 10 (1): 29–33. PMID 10695258.
- ↑ "Orphanet: Pseudohypoparat".
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Shalitin S, Davidovits M, Lazar L, Weintrob N (2008). "Clinical heterogeneity of pseudohypoparathyroidism: from hyper- to hypocalcemia". Horm. Res. 70 (3): 137–44. doi:10.1159/000137658. PMID 18663313.
- ↑ Adachi M, Muroya K, Asakura Y, Kondoh Y, Ishihara J, Hasegawa T (2009). "Ectopic calcification as discernible manifestation in neonates with pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a". Int J Endocrinol. 2009: 931057. doi:10.1155/2009/931057. PMC 2778176. PMID 20011056.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Neary NM, El-Maouche D, Hopkins R, Libutti SK, Moses AM, Weinstein LS (2012). "Development and treatment of tertiary hyperparathyroidism in patients with pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1B". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 97 (9): 3025–30. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-1655. PMC 3431579. PMID 22736772.
- ↑ Balavoine AS, Ladsous M, Velayoudom FL, Vlaeminck V, Cardot-Bauters C, d'Herbomez M, Wemeau JL (2008). "Hypothyroidism in patients with pseudohypoparathyroidism type Ia: clinical evidence of resistance to TSH and TRH". Eur. J. Endocrinol. 159 (4): 431–7. doi:10.1530/EJE-08-0111. PMID 18805917.
- ↑ Freson K, Izzi B, Labarque V, Van Helvoirt M, Thys C, Wittevrongel C, Bex M, Bouillon R, Godefroid N, Proesmans W, de Zegher F, Jaeken J, Van Geet C (2008). "GNAS defects identified by stimulatory G protein alpha-subunit signalling studies in platelets". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93 (12): 4851–9. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0883. PMID 18812479.
- ↑ Nekula J, Urbanek K, Buresova J (1992). "[Radiological findings in pseudohypoparathyroidism]". Rofo (in German). 157 (1): 34–6. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1032961. PMID 1638002.
- ↑ Clarke BL, Brown EM, Collins MT, Jüppner H, Lakatos P, Levine MA, Mannstadt MM, Bilezikian JP, Romanischen AF, Thakker RV (2016). "Epidemiology and Diagnosis of Hypoparathyroidism". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 101 (6): 2284–99. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-3908. PMC 5393595. PMID 26943720.