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=== Finite element modelling (FEM) === | === Finite element modelling (FEM) === | ||
=== Dual energy X-ray absorptiometery (DEXA, DXA) === | |||
* The most important [[modality]] for measuring [[Bone mineral density|bone mineral density (BMD)]], that every [[osteoporosis]] diagnostic and [[therapeutic]] decision are based on, is [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)]].<ref name="pmid27048946">{{cite journal |vauthors=Messina C, Monaco CG, Ulivieri FM, Sardanelli F, Sconfienza LM |title=Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry body composition in patients with secondary osteoporosis |journal=Eur J Radiol |volume=85 |issue=8 |pages=1493–8 |year=2016 |pmid=27048946 |doi=10.1016/j.ejrad.2016.03.018 |url=}}</ref> [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] is a 2-dimensional image of a 3-demensional subject, mainly depends on size of the [[bone]] which is studied; therefore, it would explain the variety of [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] upon sex, [[body weight]], and also [[Ethnicity and health|ethnicity]].<ref name="pmid9589631">{{cite journal |vauthors=Seeman E |title=Growth in bone mass and size--are racial and gender differences in bone mineral density more apparent than real? |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=83 |issue=5 |pages=1414–9 |year=1998 |pmid=9589631 |doi=10.1210/jcem.83.5.4844 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Considering the effect of [[bone]] size on 2-dimensional image of [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]], the measured [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] is not reflecting the exact [[Bone mineral density|BMD]]; however, the [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] [[fracture]] prediction would be better than 3-dimansional images, because small [[bones]] [[Fracture|fractured]] easily than large [[bones]].<ref name="pmid18348697">{{cite journal |vauthors=Black DM, Bouxsein ML, Marshall LM, Cummings SR, Lang TF, Cauley JA, Ensrud KE, Nielson CM, Orwoll ES |title=Proximal femoral structure and the prediction of hip fracture in men: a large prospective study using QCT |journal=J. Bone Miner. Res. |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=1326–33 |year=2008 |pmid=18348697 |pmc=2680175 |doi=10.1359/jbmr.080316 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] is the choice [[modality]] because of the following factors: | |||
*# Short duration of procedure | |||
*# High [[validity]] in [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] measurement (accuracy) | |||
*# High [[reliability]] in [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] measurement (reproducible) | |||
*# High range of application (different [[bone]] sites)<ref name="pmid12377088">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cummings SR, Bates D, Black DM |title=Clinical use of bone densitometry: scientific review |journal=JAMA |volume=288 |issue=15 |pages=1889–97 |year=2002 |pmid=12377088 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
* There are many factors influencing the [[osteoporosis]] diagnosis, such as [[trabecular bone]] architecture; however, [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] is the best predictor of [[osteoporosis]] and osteoporotic [[fractures]] by means of central [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] surveys.<ref name="pmid21427343">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lorente-Ramos R, Azpeitia-Armán J, Muñoz-Hernández A, García-Gómez JM, Díez-Martínez P, Grande-Bárez M |title=Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in the diagnosis of osteoporosis: a practical guide |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=196 |issue=4 |pages=897–904 |year=2011 |pmid=21427343 |doi=10.2214/AJR.10.5416 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* For adults, it has to be always two sites of [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] measurement, [[lumbar spine]] and [[Femur neck|femoral neck]]; in case each of them is impossible to evaluate, [[forearm]] will be substituted.<ref name="pmid18442754">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baim S, Binkley N, Bilezikian JP, Kendler DL, Hans DB, Lewiecki EM, Silverman S |title=Official Positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry and executive summary of the 2007 ISCD Position Development Conference |journal=J Clin Densitom |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=75–91 |year=2008 |pmid=18442754 |doi=10.1016/j.jocd.2007.12.007 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* For children (less than 20 years old), [[femoral]] [[Maturity (psychological)|maturity]] level may be different among population, leading to lack of unique reference measure; thus, just one site of measurement (i.e., [[lumbar spine]]) is considered.<ref name="pmid18442749">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baim S, Leonard MB, Bianchi ML, Hans DB, Kalkwarf HJ, Langman CB, Rauch F |title=Official Positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry and executive summary of the 2007 ISCD Pediatric Position Development Conference |journal=J Clin Densitom |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6–21 |year=2008 |pmid=18442749 |doi=10.1016/j.jocd.2007.12.002 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Upon the [[World Health Organization|world health organization (WHO)]] report in 1994, using T-score ([[Standard deviation|standard deviations (SD)]] below or above the average of young Caucasian women), [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] measures are divided into three groups, include: | |||
*# T-score greater than -1.0 [[Standard deviation|SD]] assumed as normal [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] | |||
*# T-score between -1.0 and -2.5 [[Standard deviation|SD]] assumed as [[osteopenia]] | |||
*# T-score less than -2.5 [[Standard deviation|SD]] assumed as [[osteoporosis]]<ref name="urlWHO IRIS: Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis : report of a WHO study group [meeting held in Rome from 22 to 25 June 1992]">{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/39142 |title=WHO IRIS: Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis : report of a WHO study group [meeting held in Rome from 22 to 25 June 1992] |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Z-score]] is same as the T-score, but the target population is matched for [[age]], sex, [[race]], and also in some studies, [[weight]]. | |||
* Using [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] in men, almost always show higher [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] levels. But regarding the effect of [[bone]] size on [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] measured [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] levels, it seems that higher [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] levels may be due to larger [[bones]] in men. Surprisingly, after matching the [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] levels, it is concluded that volumetric [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] is even lower in men. However, their [[fracture]] risk is same as women's risk; thus, the women's reference range of [[Bone mineral density|BMD]] is assumed for men, too.<ref name="pmid22057550">{{cite journal |vauthors=Srinivasan B, Kopperdahl DL, Amin S, Atkinson EJ, Camp J, Robb RA, Riggs BL, Orwoll ES, Melton LJ, Keaveny TM, Khosla S |title=Relationship of femoral neck areal bone mineral density to volumetric bone mineral density, bone size, and femoral strength in men and women |journal=Osteoporos Int |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=155–62 |year=2012 |pmid=22057550 |pmc=3640410 |doi=10.1007/s00198-011-1822-8 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Regarding the vast advantages of [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] (low [[radiation exposure]], high availability, and tremendous information related to [[fracture]] risk), it seems that [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] will remain the masterpiece of [[fracture]] risk assessment and also [[osteoporosis]] diagnosis.<ref name="pmid28716497">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jain RK, Vokes T |title=Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry |journal=J Clin Densitom |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2017 |pmid=28716497 |doi=10.1016/j.jocd.2017.06.014 |url=}}</ref> | |||
{| align="center" | |||
| [[image:Case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org, rID 45995.jpg|thumb|350px|Osteopenia - Case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org, rID 45995]] | |||
| [[image:Case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org, rID 45996.jpg|thumb|300px|Osteopenia with forearm measurement - Case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org, rID 45996]] | |||
| [[image:Case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org, rID 45997.jpg|thumb|350px|Osteoporosis - Case courtesy of Dr Henry Knipe, Radiopaedia.org, rID 45997]] | |||
|} | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
Revision as of 16:39, 9 August 2017
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
Osteoporosis other imaging findings
Finite element modelling (FEM)
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometery (DEXA, DXA)
- The most important modality for measuring bone mineral density (BMD), that every osteoporosis diagnostic and therapeutic decision are based on, is dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA).[1] DEXA is a 2-dimensional image of a 3-demensional subject, mainly depends on size of the bone which is studied; therefore, it would explain the variety of BMD upon sex, body weight, and also ethnicity.[2]
- Considering the effect of bone size on 2-dimensional image of DEXA, the measured BMD is not reflecting the exact BMD; however, the DEXA fracture prediction would be better than 3-dimansional images, because small bones fractured easily than large bones.[3]
- DEXA is the choice modality because of the following factors:
- There are many factors influencing the osteoporosis diagnosis, such as trabecular bone architecture; however, DEXA is the best predictor of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures by means of central BMD surveys.[5]
- For adults, it has to be always two sites of BMD measurement, lumbar spine and femoral neck; in case each of them is impossible to evaluate, forearm will be substituted.[6]
- For children (less than 20 years old), femoral maturity level may be different among population, leading to lack of unique reference measure; thus, just one site of measurement (i.e., lumbar spine) is considered.[7]
- Upon the world health organization (WHO) report in 1994, using T-score (standard deviations (SD) below or above the average of young Caucasian women), BMD measures are divided into three groups, include:
- T-score greater than -1.0 SD assumed as normal BMD
- T-score between -1.0 and -2.5 SD assumed as osteopenia
- T-score less than -2.5 SD assumed as osteoporosis[8]
- Z-score is same as the T-score, but the target population is matched for age, sex, race, and also in some studies, weight.
- Using DEXA in men, almost always show higher BMD levels. But regarding the effect of bone size on DEXA measured BMD levels, it seems that higher BMD levels may be due to larger bones in men. Surprisingly, after matching the BMD levels, it is concluded that volumetric BMD is even lower in men. However, their fracture risk is same as women's risk; thus, the women's reference range of BMD is assumed for men, too.[9]
- Regarding the vast advantages of DEXA (low radiation exposure, high availability, and tremendous information related to fracture risk), it seems that DEXA will remain the masterpiece of fracture risk assessment and also osteoporosis diagnosis.[10]
 |
 |
 |
References
- ↑ Messina C, Monaco CG, Ulivieri FM, Sardanelli F, Sconfienza LM (2016). "Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry body composition in patients with secondary osteoporosis". Eur J Radiol. 85 (8): 1493–8. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2016.03.018. PMID 27048946.
- ↑ Seeman E (1998). "Growth in bone mass and size--are racial and gender differences in bone mineral density more apparent than real?". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 83 (5): 1414–9. doi:10.1210/jcem.83.5.4844. PMID 9589631.
- ↑ Black DM, Bouxsein ML, Marshall LM, Cummings SR, Lang TF, Cauley JA, Ensrud KE, Nielson CM, Orwoll ES (2008). "Proximal femoral structure and the prediction of hip fracture in men: a large prospective study using QCT". J. Bone Miner. Res. 23 (8): 1326–33. doi:10.1359/jbmr.080316. PMC 2680175. PMID 18348697.
- ↑ Cummings SR, Bates D, Black DM (2002). "Clinical use of bone densitometry: scientific review". JAMA. 288 (15): 1889–97. PMID 12377088.
- ↑ Lorente-Ramos R, Azpeitia-Armán J, Muñoz-Hernández A, García-Gómez JM, Díez-Martínez P, Grande-Bárez M (2011). "Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in the diagnosis of osteoporosis: a practical guide". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 196 (4): 897–904. doi:10.2214/AJR.10.5416. PMID 21427343.
- ↑ Baim S, Binkley N, Bilezikian JP, Kendler DL, Hans DB, Lewiecki EM, Silverman S (2008). "Official Positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry and executive summary of the 2007 ISCD Position Development Conference". J Clin Densitom. 11 (1): 75–91. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2007.12.007. PMID 18442754.
- ↑ Baim S, Leonard MB, Bianchi ML, Hans DB, Kalkwarf HJ, Langman CB, Rauch F (2008). "Official Positions of the International Society for Clinical Densitometry and executive summary of the 2007 ISCD Pediatric Position Development Conference". J Clin Densitom. 11 (1): 6–21. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2007.12.002. PMID 18442749.
- ↑ "WHO IRIS: Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis : report of a WHO study group [meeting held in Rome from 22 to 25 June 1992]".
- ↑ Srinivasan B, Kopperdahl DL, Amin S, Atkinson EJ, Camp J, Robb RA, Riggs BL, Orwoll ES, Melton LJ, Keaveny TM, Khosla S (2012). "Relationship of femoral neck areal bone mineral density to volumetric bone mineral density, bone size, and femoral strength in men and women". Osteoporos Int. 23 (1): 155–62. doi:10.1007/s00198-011-1822-8. PMC 3640410. PMID 22057550.
- ↑ Jain RK, Vokes T (2017). "Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry". J Clin Densitom. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2017.06.014. PMID 28716497.